Practical Home and 
School Methods 



OF 



STUDY AND INSTRUCTION IN THE 
FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION 
WITH OUTLINES AND PAGE REFERENCES 
BASED ON 



THE NEW TEACHERS' AND PUPILS' 
CYCLOPAEDIA 



Under the Direction of 

BERNHART P. HOLST 

Teacher and Editor 



Partial List of Assistants: 
CLARA E. THOMPSON 

Teacher at St. Paul, Minn. 

ESSE V. HATHAWAY 

High School Teacher, Marshalltown, Iowa 

E. L. COBURN 

Supervisor of Music, St. Ivouis, Mo. 

GRACIA E. TUCKER 

Principal of the L,incoln School, Boone, Iowa 

H. M. MARTIN 

Principal of the Morse School, Kansas City, Mo. 

EFFIE SCHUNEMAN 

Supervisor of Drawing, Boone, Iowa 

LAWRENCE DeGRAFF 

Judge of District Court, Des Moines, Iowa 



:ago. 111. Boone, Iowa Pittsburg, Pa. Toronto, Oni. 

The Hoist Publishing Company 
1910 



CONTENTS 



Preface - --,- " " " " "^ 

Introduction - -■'- - - " " ' ^ 

The Attainment of Success - - - " ~ ~ ^ 

The Spirit of Inquiry - - - - - ~ ^ 

Education - - - - " " " ~ "^ 

How to Study - - - - - ~ ~ ' ° 

SUBJECTS TREATED 

on 

Agriculture - - - - -" " "iiq 

Agriculture, Course of Study in - - - - - j^^ 

American Indian ------- 138 



American Literature 



Botany 



Copyright 1910 by 
THE HOLST PUBLISHING COMPANY 
printed in the united states of America 

©CI. A 2B 8945 



250 



Anthropology -------- 133 

Asbestos, Etc. . ------- ^-7 

Astronomy . _______ 204 

Biography - -- - - " ~ " -^^^ 

Birds, Outline on - - - - --- 25 



223 



Coal, Etc. - ' ~ ~ ' ' ~ ~ III 

Commerce - - - - - - - -~ ^^° 

Drawing - - - - - - - - ^^^ 

English Literature ------- 231 

Fine Arts - -- - - - - - 1^"^ 

Flowers - - - - - -- " " ^^" 

Forestry - - -- - - - " l^" 

Games and Sports -----.-- 294 

Geology -------- 208 

Grass ---------95 

Horticulture -------- 111 

Irrigation - - - - -- - - -86 

Language and Grammar - - - - - - 305 

Letter Writing -------- 1^^ 

Literature _--_---- 228 

Minerals and Mining - - - - - - - 221 

Nature Study __-_--- 12 

Needs of Man - - - - - - - -10 

Orthography and Orthoepy ------ 125 

Painters and Paintixc.s - - - - - - 175 

Paper Cutting - _ . _ - _ - _ 275 

Parts of Speech - - - - -- - - 320 

Physics --------- 281 

Physiology ----_____ 288 

Poultry --------t 103 

Reptiles _---_--_- 198 
Rules for Spelling _--___ 128 
Sugar - - - - - - - - -.98 

Transportation - - - -- - - - 298 

Zoology - - - - -.- _ . _ 195 





ETHOD is of vast impor- 
tance in the acquisition or 
knowledge. It is the lub- 
ricant that serves lo oil the 
mechanism of -the brain. 
Properly employed, it con- 
verts knowledge into chan- 
nels of wisdom and usefulness. 

The possession of an accredited 
work of reference, such as "The New 
Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia, 
is a valuable holding, but it becomes of 
the greatest utility only when it is con- 
sulted in a methodical way. The pres- 
ent volume contains the guideposts that 
direct efforts along the line of rational 
study- 

Those who have dedicated their 
lives to the work of the student and the 
teacher realize clearly the meaning of 
Rev. F. S- Browning's beautiful words: 

I do not know 
Where falls the seed that I have tried to sow 

With greatest care; 

But I shall know 
The meaning of each waiting hour below 

Some time, somewhere! 

—B. P. H. 






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Introduction 





Principal Features. 

ATTENTION is directed to the innumerable suggestive and helpful fea- 
tures of this work. It covers the field of education so completely that 
many prominent educators recommend it as an indispensable help to 
students and teachers. Hundreds of institutions of learning have placed it on 
their lists of useful books. 

Orthography and Orthoepy. 
Correct spelling and pronunciation are accomplishments of the finished 
scholar. Acquired as habits in the formative period, they give surety and 
independence to the man or woman in writing and speaking. This work uses 
the correct method, the system of diacritical marking, and defines and explains 
the difficult titles. 

Language and Grammar. 
Children should be taught to speak and write correctly. If properly trained 
in youth, they acquire the use of language from habit and become able to use 
it authoritatively. This work gives the exercises and outlines the lessons which 
are important. With the language lessorls are correlated the more advanced 
work of grammar. 

Agriculture. 
All the departments of agriculture are treated in a helpful manner. The 
aim in this branch is to emphasize the importance of the farm in the economy of 
the nation. Formerly farming was empirical, but now the successful farmer 
is more especially fitted for the duties of his business. He studies not only to 
make his work profitable, but endeavors to beautify his home and enjoy the 
greater conveniences of a progressive age. 

Literature. 
This work abounds with facts that lead to a hearty appreciation of the best 
in literature. It contains not only a line of helpful information on the lives 
of the world's best writers, but furnishes materials for the actual scrutiny of 
their products. Many quotations from great authors embellish the pages and 
add interest in the study of useful subjects. 

Biography. 
Children gain much strength of character from studying the achievements 
of great men and women. They learn to emulate the noble deeds of great 
minds, whether in the field of science or statesmanship, and profit by the eflfort. 
This work stands foremost in the study and application of noted examples of 
human life and achievement. 

Civics and History. 
Instructors in the home and in school should keep in mind the future 
Scitizen — the men and women who will ultimately guide the ship of state safely 



on the sea of nations. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclgpa-edia treats 
of civil government so completely that all who follow the instruction obtain a 
clear understanding of the government, local as well as national. 

The scope of work in history ranges from the most ancient to the present 
time, covering a period of more than six thousand years. It traces the causes 
and effects largely by sources, making the whole subject both clear and 
interesting. 

Fine Arts. 

The fine arts embrace the greatest achievements of man. Architecture, 
painting, sculpture, music, and engraving stand at the head of human attain- 
ments. They engage not only the ingenuity and stimulate the higher nature, but 
embody the accomplishments that really make life beautiful and ennobling. 

This work furnishes the outlines and materials to study the fine arts. Students 
who follow the courses and consult the references, who devote their spare time 
to personal culture, acquire ability in conversing on these interesting topics. 

Drawing. 

The art of drawing is recognized as a very worthy subject of study. It 
enables the student to enforce statements by actual examples. This work con- 
tains a very complete treatise and many instructions in drawing, prepared by 
Miss Efiie Schuneman, an accomplished teacher of the Pratt System of draw- 
ing. The mere mention of this system is sufficient to recommend this work 

to the student and teacher. 

Letter Writing. 

Correct form and usage in letter writing are as essential as correctness in 
speaking. Great letter writers, such as Jonathan Swift, Johann Goethe, and 
Madame de Stael-Holstein, became famous for their style of writing, as well 
as for the thoughts they committed to paper. This work presents a very com- 
plete set of forms and directions for conducting correspondence. Linked with 
the information given in the work, this department enables the student to be 
correct in the subjects of knowledge as well as in the style of committing them 
on paper. 

Nature Study. 

The systematic study of nature is made possible by consulting this work. It 
enables students to plan with the view of getting the best information which 
nature furnishes. Correlated with the topics of study, of which there are in- 
numerable, will be found the choicest gems of literature to ennoble the mind. 
The fact that this work is consulted more frequently than any other, particu- 
larly in nature study, is proof conclusive that it is indispensable to the learner 
and the teacher. 

Sciences. 

All the natural sciences, including their branches and departments, are 
treated in The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia. Outlines in the most 
important of these branches are furnished in this work, such as those in 
Anthropology, Astronomy, Botany, Geology, Physics, Physiology, etc. 

Other Subjects of Study. 

To summarize the entire work, it may be said to contain all the leading 
subjects for conversation. It embodies the topics which are essential in a 
practical education and in the affairs of a successful business career. 

Those who wish to be abreast of the times, equipped at any moment to dem- 
onstrate their power as students and thinkers, may consult this work with con- 
fidence of success. In politics and business, in folklore and mythology, in law 
and commerce, in fact, in all the general topics, it widens culture and dissemi- 
nates knowledge. 

3 



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The Attainment of Success 



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UGGESS in any enterprise or industry is the prod- 
uct of labor. It must be sawed out of the forest, 
blasted out of the mine, plowed out of the field, 
achieved by close application in the institution of 
learning. 

Alexander Hamilton, the eminent American 
statesman, said: *'Men give me credit for genius; 
but all the genius I have lies in this: When I 
have a subject on hand I study it profoundly. 
The effect I make, they call the fruit of genius; it is, however, the 
fruit of labor and thought." 

We need to prepare ourselves to endure, physical toil as well 
as brain activity. This twofold culture, when closely associated 
with tact to apply it skillfully, is an ever-important factor. Indeed, 
labor, thought, and skill are the essentials of a successful career- 
Nothing can hinder young men and women from obtaining 
success, if they are ablaze with determination. Those whose 
early training has been neglected may repair the defect by earnest 
study at home or in evening schools. If the time for this work is 
limited, that little should be improved. Napoleon once said, "The 
reason I beat the Austrian army is, they did not know the value 
of five minutes. 

Success implies more than broad acres, large herds, and 
heavily laden granaries- It is closely linked with the kindnesses 
shown to others, the good accomplished in our community, and 
the help we bestow upon our fellows. Success means enterprise, 
thrift, skill, kindness, and self-denial. 

It is the very nature of man to be athirst. This instinctive 
characteristic marks the soul as infinite. He may be athirst for 
work, love, art, achievement, or any other worthy object, but it is 
a thirst that cannot be quenched by any one or all of them. The 
desire is gratified only by the hope of future attainment. 

Miss not the occasion; by the forelock take 

That subtile power, the never-halting time. 

Lest a mere moment's putting oil should make 
Mischance almost as heavy as a crime. 

— fFordsivortfi. 




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The Spirit of Inquiry 



HE immortal spirit of inquiry — the basis of every 
addition to knowledge — cannot die. It is as irre- 
sistible as the onward flow of the tides, or the 
movement of the stars. 

The spirit of inquiry and investigation in all ages 
has dared to explore the wilds of untrodden lands. 
It has invaded the region of unknown seas, pene- 
trated the crust of the earth and the milky heavens above, and 
planted imperishable monuments as the result of constant search 
for knowledge. 

Seizing the power and speed of steam, it has moved the 
commerce of the world. It has bridled the lightning and com- 
manded it to bear messages from land to land. It has discov- 
ered the secrets which enable man to fly through the air with 
the precision and the speed of birds. The conquests of this 
spirit have kindled the fire of intelligence which will burn for 
ages and centuries. 

To think and investigate are now considered among the great- 
est glories of life. He who ascends highest the mountain steeps 
of thought, or plunges deepest into the ocean of unsolved 
doubt, is considered a benefactor of mankind. The intellect of 
the thinker, daring to seize the bolts of thought, is not impaled 
by a tyrannical Jupiter. 

Every phase of human economy has been investigated by the 
spirit of inquiry. This spirit is at the bottom of every progressive 
movement and is emblazoned on every landmark of civilization. 

It has supplanted doubt, uncertainty, and superstition by pro- 
moting truth, knowledge, and progress. The influence of this 
spirit has trained the statesman, guided the schoolmaster, and 
educated the masses. 

The spirit of inquiry should be made a subject of personal 
study. Our ability to learn and understand should be limited 
only by our power to acquire a greater fund of knowledge and 
skill. To be and to become — this is the tonic which should 
quicken the soul each new morning, the sparkling dew which 
should refresh the feet of those who tread the grassy sward. 





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EDUCATION is the birthright of every child. It is the duty of those in 
authority to protect the child in the enjoyment of this right. The kind 
and extent of education are primarily to be decided by the parent, or 
guardian, but later the youth may choose additional training for a particular 
trade or profession. 

The test of education is not outward prosperity, the enlargement of man's 
dominion over nature, or the increase of commercial intercourse. These are laud- 
able, if they add to the storehouse of human purpose, or extend the scope of per- 
manent happiness among men. The true test of education is in the influence it 
has upon the minds and hearts of the people. 

The first step in education is to ascertain the present state of mind develop- 
ment. Having learned the capacity of the mind, the instructor begins to teach new- 
elements of knowledge. Step by step the learner is led to associate the new facts 
with those previously known, both of which are called into use from time to time 
by tests and examinations. 

Successive tests may prove that the learner is making progress in learning the 
branches studied, but this is a small part of the actual accomplishment. The over- 
shadowing importance of educational work is in the student himself^ whose power 
of mind and body is enlarged and vitalized. A beneficent contagion drives the 
impulse of mental activity from one faculty to another — from the vision to the 
memory, from the memory to the imagination, from the imagination to the affec- 
tions, and from the affections to the will — until the whole being is awakened. The 
thrill passes from the first point of contact to all the faculties, causing the remotest 
part of the soul to feel the impulse. 

In education the environment of the child must not be overlooked as a potent 
factor. The mind is influenced, not only by the course of lessons, but by the con- 
ditions under which the instruction is given. The home life, the surroundings in 
the schoolroom, the companions on the playground, in fact, all the things heard 
and seen, have a vitalizing or depressing influence in the process of development. 
Frequently influences of which we are not conscious wield the greater force upon 
the mind and life of the learner. 

Education, aside from the subject taught, exercises an influence upon charac- 
ter, A student who is trained to mental and physical labor absorbs cardinal virtues 
in addition to the elements of knowledge. He acquires habits of self-control, 
industry, and perseverance. The assignment of lessons causes him to accustom 
himself to other impulses than present inclinations. Eventually, through persist- 
ent work and study, he acquires ennobling habits and sturdy strength. 

The scholar himself is the grandest type of perfection in education. He be- 
comes enlarged, strengthened, and improved by the mental struggle through a 
decade or more of years. If facts are forgotten, they may be recalled by a trained 
mind in a systematic order when they are needed in actual service. The facts may 

6 



even be lost, but a more important factor remains, the trained mind that gathers 
and vitalizes them. 

Huxley, the English writer, gives the following definition of a liberal educa- 
tion : "That man, I think, has a liberal education who has been so trained in his 
youth that his body is the ready servant of his will and does with ease and pleasure 
all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of ; whose intellect is a clear, cold 
logic-engine,, with all its parts of equal strength and in smooth working order, 
ready like a steam engine to be turned to any kind of work and spin the gossamers 
as well as forge the anchors of the mind ; whose mind is stored with a knowledge 
of the great and fundamental truths of nature and the laws of her operations ; one 
who is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a 
vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all 
beauty, whether of art or nature, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as him- 
self." 

The student is not inclined to measure life by years or decades, but rather by 
the wholesome culture of the mind. This culture brings an enlargement of power. 
a greater capacity to discharge the functions of life, and makes it possible for the 
mind to range in a more expanded field. Although such mental development en- 
larges the duties and responsibilities, it greatly multiplies the joy of living as well 
as the hopes and ambitions for future years. 



Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, 
To teach the young idea how to shoot, 
To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind, 
To breathe the enliv'ning spirit, and to fix 
The generous purpose in the glowing breast. 

— Thomson. 



The Student. 

His years, 'tis true, are few, — his life is long ; 
For he has gathered many a precious gem ; 
Enraptured, he has dwelt where master minds 
Have poured their own deep musings, and his heart 
Has glowed with love of Him who framed us thus. 
Who placed within this worthless tegumeht 
The spark of pure divinity which shines 
With light unceasing. 

Yes his life is long, — 

Long to the dull and loathsome epicure's, — 

Long to the slothful man's, — the groveling herds, 

Who scarcely know they have a soul within, — 

Long to those who, creeping on to death, 

Meet in the grave, the earthworm's banquet hall. 

And leave behind no monument for good. 

—Select. 



How We Live. 

We live in deeds, not years; 

In ^thoughts, not breaths; 

In feelings, not in figures on the dial; 

We should not count time by heart-throbs. 

He most lives 
Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. 

—"Bailey. 




^HE object of study is twofold— to acquire knowledge and to cultivate the 
mind. Many people regard the former of greater importance, since they 
consider the acquisition of facts and of knowledge the prime end to be kept 
in mind. It is needless to say that this view is erroneous. 

The real object of study is to secure the harmonious and healthful growth of 
all the faculties. To train the muscles, the mind, and the heart until they respond 
quickly and unfalteringly to the higher impulses should be the chief ambition of 
the student. Facts without a trained mind to use them are absolutely useless and 
unfruitful. 

The student should aim to acquire correct and vigorous habits of thinking. 
The thinking should be deep, concise, and clear. He should be able to express 
thought by voice and pen in an unfaltering manner. Trained in this way, the 
mind becomes the master of facts and uses them with the force that begets influ- 
ence. 

Method. Begin to study from facts already known and thence proceed to 
the unknown. The explorer of an unknov/n region ascertains a complete descrip- 
tion or record of the starting point, provides himself with the necessary instru- 
ments and provisions to endure the voyage, and proceeds with the greatest caution 
into the untrodden field. In a similar manner, the student must equip himself with 
the instruments of study, such as text-books and works of reference, and proceed 
from his state of mind development to the higher realm of mental activity. If he 
plunges recklessly into unexplored fields, entirely disconnected from his previous 
attainments, he hazards the danger of being lost in the floes of the frozen seas, or 
devoured by beasts in the malarial jungle. 

Principles. The mind develops only under favorable conditions, when it is 
in a suitable attitude to concentrate its powers upon the subject under considera- 
tion. Mental culture is not creative in its nature, hence the aim is to develop real- 
ities only from the possibilities possessed by the mind. From these principles, the 
following rules may be deduced : 

1. Take ample healthful exercise to stimulate the circulation and develop the 
physical powers. Plan to have sufficient sleep so the mind will be clear for work 
during the entire period for study. 

2. Do not plod and ponder. It is better to rest when you get tired than to try 



to study when the mind is dull or overtaxed. The mind becomes dull when the 
body is tired. At this point it may be well to take up another subject. A change 
in the branch of study often is restful and tends to revive interest. 

3. The student must cultivate an interest in the subject which he studies. 
Interest stimulates the attention and induces the mind to grasp for more informa- 
tion. Games and amusements are enjoyed because they are interesting. The same 
interest, the desire to master the subject, is essential to study with success. 

4. Interest is stimulated by an understanding of the lessons. It is a mistake 
to try to teach what is beyond the comprehension of the learner. Any knowledge 
secured in an isolated and disconnected way is of little value in the general process 
of education. The spelling of words and the meaning of terms and phrases should 
be mastered and affiliated with facts previously learned. 

5. We should study to acquire power. Frequently we find those who know 
how, but they lack the power to do. These two elements must be combined by 
judicious training. The power sought should enable us to think consecutively, to 
utilize judiciously, and to control and direct our mental and moral forces. In every 
act of the body and mind we expend energy. This energy is the life element, the 
vital force, which enables us to achieve success and obtain happiness. 

6. We should not study merely to get the answer, but rather to understand 
the topic in all its relations. Strength is gathered by mental exercise, by acquir- 
ing and applying the new knowledge. The effort in learning should be compared 
to the exercise of the athlete instead of the work of the haymaker. Rather than 
aim at the product, we aim at the healthful, intelligent effort put forth. 

7. The student needs to acquire habits of thoroughness. He should go to 
the bottom of the problem and master the cause and effect. Thoroughness does 
not imply reading all that may be said on a topic, but rather to read each sentence 
carefully, thoughtfully, and understandingly. Our work is thorough when we are 
able to explain the reason for each step as we proceed. 

8. The student should apply the knowledge as it is learned from time to 
time. This should be done with tact, else he may become offensive to his compan- 
ions. Such use of the new elements of knowledge causes him to employ the correct 
form from force of habit. 

Those who know how to speak correctly, in a fluent and grammatical order, 
do themselves an injury when they fail to employ the best forms of which they are 
capable. The force of habit. in using incorrect forms, both in thought and speech, 
is so strong that even the trained mind needs to guard against it with care. 

9. We should study to acquire nobility of mind and heart. Every act may 
be likened to stone and mortar in the formation of character. Without character 
the most splendid attainments are as the house built upon the sand. With it deeds 
become the guardian angels of this mortal life. 

10. If you have leisure hours, as most students have, plan to spend them 
wisely. Great men, men of affairs, have no hours of leisure, because they allot 
their time so it will count for something— either for business or for recuperation. 
It is important to utilize time wisely in this way, making it of utility in study, in 
rest, or in healthful exercise. 



Our doubts are traitors 
And make us lose the good we oft might win 
By fearing to attempt. — Shakespeare. 

9 



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Needs of Man 

Food ^. , . ou ,^ Heat ^ 

Clothing Shelter ^i^^/^,mm^fmm^f^ 

Education 



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Those who think must govern those who toil. — Goldsmith. 

THE needs of man are varied and numerous. Simplest in the early period, 
they increase in number and complexity as man progresses upward in the 
scale of civilization. 

Primitive man considered few wants and was easily satisfied. He lived close 
to nature and depended largely upon himself for food and shelter. The complexit}^ 
of human interdependence was not recognized until long after intelligence had 
been placed above physical strength. 

Every discovery and invention has added to the requirements of man in the 
home, in society, and in public life. It is now considered that he lives most who 
acts the noblest and thinks the best. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is of importance to those who 
feel the need of a work of general reference. It was prepared and edited by a 
corps of writers who had in mind the requirements of mankind along the line of 
practical information. Consult the articles on Agriculture, Architecture, 
Civilization, Commerce, Food, Hygiene, Plants, Schools, Weaving, etc. 

Outline. 



. Food. 






2. Anim 


al. 


1. Vegetable. 




1. 


Where found. 


1. 


Where found. 


2. 


How obtained. 


2. 


How obtained. 




1. Hunting. 






Farming. 




2. Fishing. 






Gardening 




3. Trapping. 






(Market). 




4. Stock raising. 


3. 


Kinds. 




5. Trade. 




1. 


Fruit. 




1. Wholesale 




2. 


Grain. 




— Packing 




3. 


Vegetables. 




houses. 


4. 


Occupations growing 




2. Retail- 






from this. 




Butchers 




1. 


Farming. 


3. 


Kinds. 




2. 


Gardening. 




1. Poultry. 




3. 


Trade. 
Wholesale — 
Commission 
houses. 
Retail- 




2. Pork. 

3. Beef, Veal. 

4. Mutton, Lamb. 

5. Fish, Oysters. 

6. Dairy products. 






Grocery 


4. 


Occupations. 






stores, 




1. Trade, 






bakeries, etc. 




1. Wholesale — 




4. 


Transportation. 




1. Packing 




5. 


Commerce. 




houses. 



10 



I 2. Commission 

houses. 
2. Retail— 

1 Butchers. 
3, Mineral. 
Iron. 
Lime. 
Salt. 
Water. 
Soda. 

Magnesium. 
II. Clothing. 

1. Where found— Trade cen- 

ters, zones. 

2. How obtained. 

1. Manufactured. 

3. Kinds. 

1. Vegetable. 

1. Cotton. 

2. Flax. 

3. Hemp. 

4. Rubber. 

2. Animal. 



Silk. 

Leather. 

Wool. 

Furs. 

Feathers, boas. 
Hair. 



3. Mineral. 

1. Glass. 

2. Steel or Iron 

(Coat of mail, 
armor). 
III. Shelter. 

1. Kinds. 

1. Stone. 

1. Kinds. 

1. Building 

stone. 

2. Granite. 



3. Marble. 

2. Where found — 

Quarries. 

3. How obtained. 

4. Occupation — 

Stone cutting. 

2. Wood. 

1. Kinds. 

1. Oak. 

2. Pine. 

2. Where found. 

1. Forests. 

3. How obtained. 

4. Occupation — 

Lumbering. 

3. Brick. 

1. Kinds. 

2. Where found. 

3. How obtained. 

IV. Heat. 

1. Materials. 

1. Coal. 

2. Oil. 

3. Gas. 

4. Wood. 
Where found. 
How obtained. 

V. Education. 

1. Need of— 

Physical. 

Intellectual. 

Moral. 

2. Public and private. 

3. Classes of schools. 

1. Kindergarten. 

2. Elementary. 

3. Academical. 

4. Technical and pro- 

fessional. 

5. The University. 



THE BUILDERS 



All are architects of Fate, 
Working in these walls of time; 

Some with massive deeds and great. 
Some with ornaments of rhyme. 



Nothing useless is, or low; 

Each thing in its place is best ; 
And what seems but idle show 

Strengthens and supports the rest. 



Forthe structures that we raise, 

Time is with materials filled ; 
Our to-days and yesterdays 

Are the blocks with which we build. 

— Longfellotv. 



11 



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There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 
There is a rapture on the lonely shore; 

There is society where none intrudes, 
By the deep sea, and music in its roar. 

— "Byron. 

Definition: Nature Study embraces a study of the objects in nature, such 
as animals, minerals, and plants. 

The period of childhood is the most fruitful time to cultivate the emotions and 
to build up the positive side of character. It is primarily the formative period, 
when the eyes are filled with pictures and the fancies spring as buds of the reali- 
ties which a happy maturity of years may bring. 

Nature furnishes the inspirations which are really worth while. It enables 
the author to write with tenderness and trueness to life ; it teaches the painter to 
reduce to the canvas what we call the delicate and the beautiful in art. But to the 
student, especially in childhood, nature does even more, since it awakens the love 
and interest in the beauty and realities which are encountered everywhere in the 
universe. 

Plants are the simplest and most common objects with which we come in con- 
tact and are well adapted for use in the early lessons. Where certain plants grow, 
how they are constructed, and in what order the several parts develop are interest- 
ing topics. Attention may be directed to the grouping of plants, or, in other words, 
to classification. Both botany and zoology furnish large fields for observation and 
study, but the processes in the latter are somewhat complicated. Therefore, the 
study of plants should precede the study of animals. From these the student may 
proceed to geography, the elements of physics and cjiemistry, the study of min- 
erals, and ultimately to physiology. 

If the teacher hopes to guide her pupils wisely, she must herself go to nature 
for inspiration. It is necessary for her to learn to know and love the flowers, the 
birds, and the trees in order to induce her students to observe their habits of 
growth and the functions they serve in nature. Each object which is studied 
should be sketched and made the topic for a written lesson, after which all the 
statements should be verified by reference to the text-books and the cyclopaedia. 
Practice work in drawing and composition, conversational lessons, and the study 
-^f selections from literature are earnestly commended. 

12 



jprrrrprrrrf'^rf^'rrrprrrrrrmi 



wtittirvtitftitiiiiiTtitttTfTiiTiiiiiifiitifriittr? 



NATURE 



licVr;): 



Uattire speaks in language olden, 
Speaks in tones that all may hear; 

Tells of ages that were golden, 

Tells of storm-nights dark and drear 



She has secrets in her keeping. 
Secrets hid from you and me, 

Taey have "been for ages sleeping. 
Stored in earth and air and sea. 



In the streamlets you will hear them, 
is they ripple o'er the stone. 

In the forests you are near them, 
Near them; in the desert, lone. 



Hear them in the tempest raging; 

Hear them in the summer hreeze; 
See them in the season's ageing; 

See them in the spreading trees. 



Every flower, it has its story; 

Every stone its tale to tell; 
Legends tint the sunset glory. 

History moulds the mollusk's shell. 

I. Noble. 



-SH- 

T T t I T f I t T I r I I ? I I I T I I T I 1 I I t T I I T T T t t T » t t » I T I t < t Till 



^ 



12 



^ 



15 



TYPEWRITER LESSON- 



13 



Objects to be Attained. 



1. To increase the power of obser- 

vation in children. 

2. To awaken and enlist the interest 

of the children in their imme- 
diate environment. 

3. To give practical information 

about the common things of 
life. 



4. To prepare children to appreciate 

the literature which nature has 
inspired. 

5. To develop the higher nature of 

the human being — the spiritual, 
the aesthetical, and the ethical. 



Outlines in Nature Study. 



I. Fall Term. 

A — The common flowers, fruits, 
grasses, weeds, leaves, trees, 



etc. 



1. 



2. 



B 



Collect specimens and bring to 
schoolroom for study (Where 
possible, children should make 
the collection). 

Make study of each specimen as 
to color, size, form, where 
found, how grown, short de- 
scription, use, etc. 

Represent each in color work in 
drawing (The best drawings 
at the time to be collected and 
preserved). 

Collect pictures of these things 
and classify for study. 

•The more common insects and 
worms. 

Covering, color, size, form, habits, 
and use (Specimens to be 
collected, brought into the 
schoolroom, studied, and pre- 
served for future use). 

Collect and classify pictures for 
study. 

Represent in color drawings 
(Preserve the best). 

C — Domestic and common wild ani- 
mals. 

1. Covering, color, size, habits, and 
use (Children to make obser- 
vations and tell what they ob- 
serve). 
Collect and classify pictures for 

study. 
Represent in color drawings 
(Preserve the best). 

■Domestic fowls and birds. 
1. Teach something of color, size, 
habits, dress, and use of each 
(Children to be given an op- 



2 



3. 



2 



D 



E- 
1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

6. 

7. 



F- 



1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 

G 

1. 



3. 

4. 



H— 



portunity to make observations 
about these fowls and birds). 

Collect and classify pictures for 
study (Where possible to get 
a stuffed specimen, do so). 

Represent in color drawing, as far 
as possible, a picture of each 
(Preserve the best). 

Observations on the weather. 

Clear and cloudy days. 

Calm and windy days. 

Warm and cold days. 

Rainy days. 

Make chart indicating simplest ob- 
servations and preserve it. 

As far as possible, collect pictures. 

Represent in color drawings little 
scenes showing sunshine, 
clouds, etc. 

Observations on the surface of the 
earth and simple directions and 
distance taught. 

Hill, hollow, brooklet, stream. 

Represent these in drawings. 

North, south, east, and west. 

Far and near, etc. 

•Literature and language. 

Memory gems and poems about 
nature. 

These to be selected and suited to 
the topic under consideration 
and taught at the time. 

Story of Hiawatha. 

Other stories, as "Little Red Rid- 
ing Hood," "The Three Bears," 
etc. (These to be acted and 
played). 

Finally, as a fitting close for the 
fall work, the idea of the in- 
gathering of the harvests, as 
represented in the Thanksgiv- 
ing Celebration, etc. The Even- 
ing of Life, 



14 



II. Winter Term. 

A — Preparation of different things for 
winter. 

1. Flowers, grasses, weeds, trees, 

etc., closing of the buds, A- 

changes in the grass, weeds, l, 

trees. Why? 

2. Insects; change. What becomes 

of them? 2. 

3. Fowls and birds , change. Migra- 

tion of birds. 3. 

4. Animals change in covering. 4. 

Why? _ 5 

5. Continue observations on weather 

— Snow, ice, cold, frost, and 6. 

fire. 

6. Winter scenes represented in 7. 

drawings. 8. 

7. Pictures collected and classified. 

8. Children's sports and games 9. 

9. Memory gems and poems suited 10, 

through the season. 

10. Continue the study of stories, 

acted and played. The idea 



here represented is that all na- 
ture goes to sleep. It is the 
Nighttime of Life. 

III. Spring Term. 

-Preparation for spring. 

Opening of the buds (Get the 
earliest buds and twigs for 
study). 

The springing up of the grass and 
weeds. 

The leafing of the trees. 

The flowering of the plants. 

The coming of the birds and in- 
sects. 

Change in the animals — Shedding 
of their winter covering, etc. 

Change of fowls. 

Memory gems and poems suitable 
to the season and the lesson. 

Stories acted and played. 

Pictures collected and classified. 
The idea here represented is 
the awakening of all nature. 
The Morning of Life. 



Correlated Subjects. 

Animals. 

Birds — Condor, carrier pigeon, dove, jay, lark, robin, stork. 

Domestic — Camel, cat, cattle, dog, elephant, horse, swine. 

Extinct — Archaeopteryx, mammoth, mastodon, megatherium, pterodactyl. 

Fabled — Chimaera, dragon, griffin, mermaid, phoenix. 

Fowls — Duck, goose, guinea, pigeon, poultry, turkey. 

Insects — Ant, beetle, butterfly, flea, fly, gnat, mosquito. 

Miscellaneous — Dodo, chameleon^ frog, monkey, prairie dog. 

Minerals. 

Aluminum — Discovery, utility, process of making. 

Coal — Anthracite, bituminous, canal, lignite, coke ; uses of. 

Cobalt — Commercial uses, where mined (Canada has the largest output). 

Copper — History of, where found, quantity produced, uses of. 

Gold — Mining, uses of, quartz, gold beating. 

Iron — History of, where found, uses of. 

Lead — Production of, uses, value in the arts. 

Related Topics — Amalgam, assaying, blast furnace. 

Silver — Where mined, uses, smelting, quantity produced. 

Plants. 

Cereals — Barley, corn, kafir corn, oats, rye, spelt, wheat. 
Flowers — Carnation, dahlia, geranium, hollyhock, phlox, sunflower. 
Fungi — Lichens, mushrooms, rust, smut, toadstool. 
Fibers — Cotton, esparto, flax, hemp, jute, ramie. 
Forest Trees — Ash, elm, mahogany, oak, pine, rosewood. 
Fruit — Almond, apple, breadfruit, lemon, orange, palm, quince. 
Miscellaneous — Bamboo, coffee, tea, seeds, tobacco, weeds. 
Vegetables — Bean, cabbage, lettuce, onion, pea, potato. 

2 15 



Ant. 



II 



III. 



IV 



Hymenoptera (Two winged). 
Description. 



\'. 



6 



Wings — Four membraneous. 

Head — Triangular. 

Mouth parts — Arranged for biting or sucking. 

Antennae — Slender. 

Eyes — Two kinds. 

A. Compound, consisting of fauces. 

B. Ocelli (Little eyes). 
Sense of smell — Very acute. 

Kinds. 
1. Queen (Winged). 

*" A. Size — Much larger than males. 

B. Duty— To deposit eggs which are scattered anywhere m the 
nest. 
3. Males (Winged). 

A. Size — Smaller than female. 

B. Use — To fertilize eggs. 

C. Death — Soon after pairing season. 
Workers ( Wingless ) . 

A. Size — Smallest of class. 

B. Intelligence— Greatest and most interesting. 

C. Duties— 
To build home and streets. 
To care for eggs. e. Acquisition of food. 
To feed the larvae. f. To act as soldiers. 
To care for pupae. g. To keep habitation in repair. 



3. 



a. 
b. 
c. 

d. 




RED ANT (Magnified and Natural Size). 
A. Male; B. Worker; C. Female. 

Metamorphosis. 

1. Eggs-^(Very small). 

A. Deposited by queen. 

B. Carried by workers and placed in sun in morning and at night 

stored in nest. 

2. Larvae — Small, white worms. 

A. Carried back and forth by workers same as eggs. 

B. Nourished by liquid from stomach of workers. 

C. Spinning of cocoon. . 

3. Cocoon — 

A. Cared for in same way as eggs and larvae. 

B. Cut out of cells by workers when ready to become perfect ants. 
Habits and Construction of Homes. 

1. Homes — 

A. x\nt-hills — Built in ground and cones, or hills, constructed over 
them. 

a. Rooms and galleries — l\Iany. 

b. Height — In tropics from 12 to 18 feet. 

16 



B. Others construct pillars with extended arches, covered with 

loose straw and sticks. 

C. Mining ants — Construct long galleries in clay. 

D. Carpenter ants — Build their homes in trees. 

E. Houses of leaves — Constructed by species in Australasia. 

VI. Food— 

1. Sugar — Obtained from vegetables. 

2. Honeydew — Sugar fluid found in the aphis (an insect), 

3. Animal food — Valuable in clearing away carrion. 

4. In tropical region, some species prey upon living animals. 

A. Others kill birds, reptiles, etc., by attacking in swarms. 

5. Characteristics. 

A. Intelligence — Almost beyond belief. 

B. Wonderful ingenuity in carpentry, masonry, and mining. 

C. Sensitive of changes of temperature and moisture. 

D. Sound — Exceed human ability in detecting sound waves. 

E. Dead — Removed promptly and buried. 

F. Sign language. 

VII. Kinds. 

1. Common red ant. 2. Black ant. 

3. Umbrella, or parasol, ant — So-called from habit of carrying leaves on 

its back. 

4. Honey ant — Secretes and stores honey in abdomen. 

5. White ants — (Not true ants). 

Test Questions on the Ant. 

What classes of ants have wings? 108. 

Which are the most intelligent? 109. 

Which perform the work of the community? 108. 

Where do ants live and how many in a colony or community ? 

Which ants are the largest ? Which the smallest ? Which the most numerous ? 
- How large are the eggs of ants and where are they deposited? 

Give two ways in which a worker may be distinguished from a male or female 
ant. 

Tell how the eggs are taken care of and hatched. 

Tell how the larvae are fed and cared for by the workers. 

What can you say about the wonderful, intelligence of ants in building houses ? 
In mining? In carpentry work? 

In what countries are ant-hills found which are from twelve to eighteen feet 
high ? 

What kind of ants live in growing trees? 

In what countries are ants found that glue leaves together with which to build 
their houses? 

Do ants have a language to communicate with each other ? 

Are they sensitive to sound and changes in temperature? 

In what country are they used for food and how are they prepared? 

How does the ant milk the aphis? 

Do some ants eat animal matter? 

What species of ants live principally upon wood ? 

How do white ants, or termites, differ from common ants ? 

How many eggs will a single ant lay ? 

In what island was there a remarkable scourge of ants about 1780 and how 
were they destroyed ? 

Name three of their principal enemies. 

What species of ants are very dangerous pests? 

What can you say of the ants' love for sugar ? 

When does their second birth take place ? 

Give all the points you can about the similarity of ants and bees. 

17 



Apple. 



I. Family. 

II. Description. 

1. Tree. 




FLOWliR. 



Height — Moderate, seldom exceeding 30 ft. 

Branches — Spreading. 

Leaves — Oval, 

Flowers — Pinkish white, produced from very short 

shoots. 
Fruit. 

Pulp — Hard and juicy, formed around a. core 
which has five cells. 
(a) Cells (Contain 2 to 3 seeds). 
Color — Various — Limited to shades of red, 

green, and yellow. 
Shape — Round or elongated. 



a. 



b. 



III. 



Classes. 

1. From where derived. 

A. Wild crab. 

2. How improved. 

A. By ingrafting. 

B. Naturalization. 

3. General classes. 

A 
B, 
C. 




FRUIT. 



4. 




Summer. 
Autumn. 
Winter. 

a. Varieties of classes (Many thousand). 
(a) Wine Saps. 

Danvers Winter Sweet. 
Pippins ; Ben Davis. 
Willow Twigs. 
Duchess of Oldenburg. 
Hundred of others. 
Seedless apple. 

A. Propagation — Evolved by propagation at Grand Junction, Colo. 
Characteristics. 
Seedless. 
Coreless. 
Wormless. 
Flower — Missing. 

Meat — Ouite solid, of good flavor, and keeps well. 
IV. Uses. 



(b) 
(c) 
(d) 
(e) 
(0 



1. 


Cooking. 




A. Canning. 





B. Baking. 

C. Preserving. 

D. Jelly. 
Cider. 


3. 


Medicinal compounds 



SECTION OF APPLE. 

V. Where Found. 

1. Native — Temperate regions of Asia and Europe. 

2. Introduced into America by Puritans. 

3. Cultivated where — Southern Canada, Middle Atlantic states, Missis- 

sippi Valley, and Pacific coast. 

18 



VI. Propagation. 

1. New varieties — How obtained. 

A. By seeds. 

B. Mostly by grafting. 

2. Orchard. 

A. Ground — Should be carefully prepared. 

B. Distance of trees — Best results obtained about 30 ft. 

C. Good crop — How obtained. 

a. Land should be tilled until about middle of July. 

b. Hence, sown with clover or cowpeas. 

D. Number of trees in United States (200,000,000). 

E. Yearly crop about 100,000,000 barrels. 



The Apple. 

Doth thy heart stir within thee at the sight 
Of orchard blossoms upon the mossy boughs? 
Doth their sweet household smile waft back and glow 
Of childhood's morn — the wondering fresh delight 
In earth's new coloring, then all strangely bright, 
A joy of fairyland? 

An apple orchard is sure to bear you several crops beside the apple. There is 
the crop of sweet and tender reminiscences, dating from childhood and spanning 
the seasons from May to October, and making the orchard a sort of outlying part 
of the household. You have played there as a child, mused as a youth or lover, 
strolled there as a thoughtful, sad-eyed man. Your father, perhaps, planted the 
trees, or reared them from the seed, and you yourself have pruned and grafted 
them, and worked among them, till every separate tree has. a peculiar history and 
meaning in your mind. Then there is the never-failing crop of birds, — robins, 
goldfinches, king-birds, cedar-birds, hair-birds, orioles, starlings, — all nesting and 
breeding in its branches and fitly described by Wilson Flagg as "Birds of the Gar- 
den 'and Orchard." — John Burroughs. 

Come Let Us Plant the Apple Tree. 

Cleave the tough greensward with the spade; What plant we in this apple tree? 

Wide let its hollow bed be made ; Sweets for a hundred flowery springs 

There gently lay the roots, and there To load the May wind's restless wings, 

Sift the dark mold with kindly care, J^^en from the orchard row he pours 

And press it o'er them tenderly- Its fragrance through our open doors; 
. ji.ii--r^, r\ A world of blossoms for the bee, 

As, round the sleeping infants feet. Flowers for the sick girl's silent room, 

We softly fold the cradle-sheet ; For the glad infant .sprigs of bloom, 

So plant we the apple tree. We plant with the apple tree. 

What plant we in this apple tree? What plant we in this apple tree? 

Buds, which the breath of summer days Fruits that shall swell in sunny June, 

Shall lengthen into leafy sprays ; And redden in the August noon, 
Boughs where the thrush with crimson breast. And drop, when gentle airs come by. 

Shall haunt and sing and hide her nest; That fan the blue September sky, 

We plant upon the sunny lea. While children come, with cries of glee, 

A shadow for the noontide hour. And seek them where the fragrant grass 

A shelter from the summer shower, Betrays their beds to those who pass, 

When we plant the apple tree. At the foot of the apple tree. 

— William Cullen Bryant. 
19 





Ok/W^ CWO-^ .4aAx«a- ^^ftA^Z^la- CXa/V^ C'OA/v^ft-. "^»-^ ^ 

O'Vcdk, -AjuMi^ aJUa>v*.^ wW)«a. 





BLACKBOARD I.ESSON. 
20 



Test Questions on the Apple. 

To what family of plants does the apple tree belong? 120. 

Of what continent is it a native? 

What can you say of its antiquity ? 

From what country was the apple introduced into xA.merica ? 

What is the parent apple of all the varieties grown and of what country is it a 
native ? 

Describe the wood of the apple tree and tell for what purposes it is used. 

What is the height of the apple tree? 120. 

Name five winter varieties common to Illinois. Name three summer varieties. 
1175. 

Give four different ways of grafting trees. 

What is the object of grafting? 

Wliat is bud grafting? 

What materials are used in grafting? 

What kind of plants are budded? 396. 

Describe the apple tree borer. 121. 

Give three preventives. 

What other fruit tree does it attack ? 

What can you say as to crab and sour apple vinegar compared to that made 
from wine, as to quality and flavor? 3051. 

What is added to the cider to improve the flavor? At what temperature does 
cider ferment very rapidly? 3050. 

How is cider brandy, or apple jack, made ? 581. 

Planted thirty feet apart, how many apple trees will an orchard of ten acres 
contain ? 

Which would be the more profitable, an apple orchard yielding three bushels 
of apples per tree at $.40 per bushel (40 acres), or a wheat field of 160 acres pro- 
ducing 25 bushels per acre at $1.00 per bushel (Apple trees set 30 feet apart) ? 

In what sections of United States are apples cultivated most extensively ? 

To whom is credit given for propagating the seedless apple? 120. 

How many seedless apple trees constituted the world's stock in 1905? 121. 

Does the seedless apple tree produce blossorns? 

Describe the meat of the seedless apple. 

Why is the seedless apple tree less liable to injury by late frost than other 
varieties ? 

How is it protected from injury by insects? 121. 

What can you say about the size and keeping qualities of the seedless apple ? 

Has the seedless apple a core and is it wormless ? 



In Autumn : 
"You think I am dead," the apple tree said, 
"Because I have never a leaf to show— because I stoop, 
And my branches droop, and the dull gray mosses over me grow ! 
But I'm all alive in trunk and shoot ; the buds of next May 
I fold away, but I pity the withered grass at my root-" 

— Edith Thomas. 



21 



I. Classes, 

1. Social. 

A. Honeybee. 

B. Bumblebee. 

2. Solitary Bees. 

A. Leaf cutting bee 

B. Carpenter bee. 

C. Mason bee. 

II. Species. 

1. Honeybee. 
A. Queen. 

a. Eggs — Lays from 2,000 to 

3,000 daily. 

a. Size — One-twelfth of an 
inch long. 

b. Color — A bluish white. 

c. Shape — Oblong. 

d. Period of incuba- 
tion — Three days. 

e. Larvae. 

(1) Color— White. 

(2) Food— Pollen 

or beebread. 

(3) Period of lar- 
val stage — Five 
to six days. 

Pupae. 

(1) Time — Thirteen days. 

(2) Envelopment- Cocoon. 
Where deposited. 

(1) For queens — Ordi- 
nary cell enlarged when 
queens are desired and 
fed on "royal food." 

(2) For workers — Ordi- 
nary cell. 

(3) For drones — Larger 
cell and hatched from 
unfertilized eggs. 

b. Size — Longer and more 
slender than male or worker. 

z. Age — 5 to 15 years. 
Workers. 

a. Number — From 10,000 to 
50,000. 

b. Nurses — Youngest workers. 
a. Duties. 

(1) To feed larvae. 

(2) Enlarge cells for queen 
and feed them "royal 
food" or bee jelly. 

(3) Make bee 
jelly for lar- 
vae. 

(4) Time 
s e r V i 
(About 
week). 



Bee. 




QUEEN. 




f. 



g- 



B. 



WORKER. 




DRONE- 

22 



c. Uses. 

a. Gather and 
make honey. 

b. Protect the 
hive. 

c. Comb building. 

d. Clean out the 
hive. 

e. Cross fertilize 
plants. 

f. Repair the hive. 

g. Store beebread. 
h. Workers kill the 

drones. 
d. Habits. 

a. Flight. 

(1) Distance — 
Five miles. 

(2) Bee line. 

b. Swarming. 

(1) Frequency 
(From one to 
four times a 
year). 

(2) Hiving. 

(3) Old queens. Young 
queens, 
e. Honey. 

a. Where obtained. 

(1) From pollen of flow- 
ers. 

(2) Honey dew. 

(3) Sweet juices of plants. 

(4) Robbing other bee 
hives. 

b. How collected. 

(1) Pollen carried on hair 
of legs. 

(2) Sweet juices (Tak- 
en up by the trunk in 
stomach or honey 
bag). 

c. Honey cell. 

(1) Size (Larger than 
hatching cell). 

(2) Construction — Hori- 
zontal. 

(3) How filled and sealed. 

(4) How retained in cell 
(By capillary a 1 1 r a c - 
tion). 

d. Hive — Construction. 
(1) Frames. 



c. 



2 



(3) Honey comb founda- 
tion. 
e. Honey extractor. 
Drones. 

. Number— From 500 to 800. 
I. Why so called — From the 
low humming sound made 
in flight. 
Uses. 

a. To act as royal escorts, 
b To fertilize the eggs. 
Bumblebee. 
3. Carpenter Bee. 
A. Home — In wood. 

a. How made — By 

trees. 

b. Tunnels. 

a. Rapidity of boring — 54 to 
Yz inch daily. 

b. Direction. 

(1) Against grain, at first. 

(2) With grain, afterward. 

(3) Length, one to two 
feet. 

(4) How divided, into cells. 
Cells contain pollen and 
eggs. 

(5) Partitions, how made. 
Powdered dust of wood. 



boring 



III. Food. 
1. Pollen. 

3. Sweet juices and honey. 

3. Beebread (Composition of flow v.. 

dust mixed with water and 

honey). 

IV. Weapon of Defense. 
1. Sting. 

V. Enemies. 

1. Moth millers and birds. 
3. Toads and mice. 
3. Lice and flies. 

VI. Language. 

1. How "expressed. According to 
Lubbock, "the language of bees is 
expressed by humming." 

VII. Age — Workers. 

1. Spring bees — Two to three 

months. 
3. Fall bees — Six to eight months. 
. 3. Old bees. 

a. How distinguished (Darker 
color; wings look worn). 

VIII. Death. 

1. Wearing out of wings. 

3. Diseases. 

3. Loss of sting. 

4. Other causes. 



Questions on the Bee. 

Of what sex are worker honeybees? 358. 

What becomes of the drones in the fall ? 

When the t.^^ first hatches, what does the larva look like ? What is it fed if a 
new queen is desired ? Note 1. 

Why is it difficult to raise red clover where there are no bumblebees ? 360. 

How is pollen carried ? 359. 

Does the queen ever leave the hive? 

Why is the male bee called the drone ? 

Is wax gathered or made ? 

How do bees carry honey to the hive ? 

What is the shape of a cell ? What keeps the honey from running out before 
it is capped over? 1153. 

What is artificial honey ? 

After the o.^^ is laid, how long before a full grown bee develops ? 

How many queens live in a swarm ? 

What is meant by the term hee line? 

What is a drone-laying queen ? Note 3. 

From what plant is the finest grade of honey made ? Note 4. 

How far will a bee go to gather honey ? Note 8. 

How can you distinguish an old bee from a young one? Note 8. 

What causes the natural death of workers and where do they die? Note 8. 

Where do injured bees die? Note 8. 

Tell how to locate a bee tree. Note 8. 

What is beebread ? How is it made ? 



23 



When do mice infest bee hives? Note 7. 

Name five enemies of bees. Notes and page 359. 

How far may bees be sent through the mails ? Note 2. 

What is royal food? Note 1. 

Give the method the bee raiser uses to hatch queens for mercantile purposes. 

What can you say about the habit of the kingbird in catching bees? Note 6. 



Notes on the Bee. 

Queens. 

1. Queen bees have stings, but they will not sting a person nor use them for 
any purpose except to kill other queens. Should a queen die or be taken from the 
hive when there are eggs in the cells, the workers at once make larger pear- 
shaped cells, placing them vertically, and supply the larva with royal food before 
capping them over, thus hatching another queen. They generally do this with sev- 
eral cells, thus insuring at least one queen. Bee keepers take advantage of this 
and, by removing the queen, cause a number of queens to be produced for 
mercantile purposes. As they hatch, they must be inclosed in a wire screen so 
they cannot get together, or they will kill each other. 

Mailing Bees. 

2. Bees may be securely inclosed in a cage or box and transported by mail 
without injury. They can be sent safely a long distance in this way, but sugar or 
other food must be inclosed in the box. A queen must never be transported with- 
out placing two or three workers with her, as she will starve ; she cannot or will 
not feed herself. 

Drone-Laying O^een. 

3. Should a queen die and leave no eggs in the cell, the colony will gradually 
perish. Under these conditions sometimes a worker will become fertilized and lay 
eggs, which will hatch, but the product is a hybrid and will do nothing but eat. In 
looks, it is a small-sized drone. Such a worker is called a drone-laying queen. 

Honey and Fertilization of Clover. 

4. White clover makes the finest grade of honey, but the blossoms of the lin- 
den tree and buckwheat make large quantities during their season. Honeybees 
cannot work on mammoth red clover for the reason that the proboscis is not long 
enough to reach the nectar. It is erroneous to speak of honeybees cross fertilizing 
red clover. It is the work of the bumblebee or other insects. 

Queens and Swarming. 

5. About two weeks after bees swarm, if you place your ear against the 
outside of the old hive, you can hear the queen or queens calling. This is the time 
to look for the second swarm. After the second swarm, if it swarms the second 
time, the third swarm will come off, but not later than the third day ; the fourth 
swarm comes out about two days after the third. One queen, in the struggle for 
supremacy, drives another from the hive and some of the bees follow. This is the 
cause of swarming, the number of swarms depending on the queens that are driven 
out. The third and fourth swarms usually are small and undesirable. If bees do 
not swarm the second time inside of three weeks after the first, they will likely not 
swarm any more during the season. 

Kingbird. 

6. The kingbird, or bee martin, is a very common enemy of bees. From the 
fact that it has a bunch of red feathers on top of its head, the story is current "that 
it ruffles up these feathers to resemble a beautiful flower and, when a bee comes 
along to sip honey from the supposed flower, it is snapped up by the bird." 

24 



• Toads and Mice. 

7. If you see a toad sitting innocently on the ground or board close in front 
of the hive, watch him and if you have a quick eye you will see how he gets his 
meal. Mice will sometimes infest hives of bees in the winter. 

Old Bees, Beebread. 

8. A bee tree may be found by placing honey or sugar so bees can find it and 
where their return flight may be observed. It is said that bees will go five miles 
to gather honey. Old worker bees may be distinguished by having a darker shade 
than young bees and the wings being more or less frayed. When the wings wear 
out they crawl as far away from the hive as possible. If a worker is injured it 
leaves the hive to die. Pollen mixed with honey and water is stored in quantities 
for winter use and known as beebread. 



Outline on Birds. 




Classification . 



Physical Features. . ^ 



Topics for Study. 



1. Climbers (Scansores) — Cockatoo, parrot, woodpecker. 

2. Perchers (Insessores) — Canary, goldfinch, robin. 

3. Raveners (Raptores) — Eagle, hawk, vulture. 

4. Runners (Cursores) — Emu, ostrich, rhea. 

5. Scratchers (Rasores) — Fowl, pheasant, pigeon. 

6. Swimmers (Natatores) — Dnck, goose, gull, swan. 
^ 7. Waders (Grallatores) — Crane, heron, snipe, stilt. 

Covering of body. 

Bones and skeleton. 

Flight. 

Sight and hearing. 

Touch and taste. 

Song or voice. 

Economic value. 

' Animal heat and intelligence. 
Birds of passage. 
Eggs — Size, color, value. 
Food — Insects, grain, worms. 
Feathers — Plumes and quills. 
Fossils — Remains and footprints. 
Nativity — Where found. 
Nests — Form and materials. 



Now the days are full of 
music! 
All the birds are back 
again; 
In the tree-tops, in the 
meadows, 
In the woodlands, on 
the plain. 
See them darting through 
the sunshine 1 
Hear them singing 
loud and clear 1 
How they love the busy 
springtime, 
Sweetest time of all 
the year! 

—Katherine Beebe. 



25 




BIwACKBOARD I.ESSON. 
26 



Kindness to Animals. 

Be kind to dumb creatures, nor grudge them your care, 
God gave them their life, and your love they must share. 
And He who the sparrow's fall tenderly heeds 
Will lovingly look on compassionate deeds. 

— Selected. 



You call them thieves and pillagers ; but know 
They are the winged wardens of your farms. 
Who from the cornfields drive the insidious foe, 
And from your harvests keep a hundred harms ; 
Even the blackest of them all, the crow, 
Renders good service as your man-at-arms. 
Crushing the beetle in his coat of mail, 
And crying havoc on the slug and snail. 

— Longfellow. 



Questions on Birds. 

For what three traits is the falcon noted ? 
What birds are noted for their beautiful plumage? 
Name a list of song birds. Which sex of birds is the singer? 
What are laughing birds and where are they found ? 
' Which birds are noted for their speedy flight? 
Of what country is the bald eagle an emblem? Of what qualities are eagles 
symbolical ? 853. 

Why is the condor known as the greedy bird ? 

Eggs and Nests. 

Of what materials do birds build their nests ? 298. 

What are mason birds ? 

How do water birds build their nests ? 

How are the eggs of sea birds gathered ? 

Tell how the owls of the class of mining birds secure nests. 

Name some birds of which the eggs are used for food. 

What bird lays the largest tgg ? 

What is the average length of the hatching season? 

Commercial Value. 

Name some birds the feathers of which are used in millinery. 
Of what birds is the flesh eaten ? 
How are egrets obtained? 
What is guano and where is it found chiefly ? 
^ Besides being valuable as food, what other uses are made of eggs ? 
Explain how birds are trained for falconry. 971. 
How do birds aid in the destruction of insects ? 

Where were pigeons first used as carriers? Relate some instances where 
these messengers proved valuable. 

■■ 27 



Butterfly. 



I. 

IL 



Lepidoptera (Scaly winged), 
Description. 
1. Body. 

A. Head. 



a. Antennae — Club shaped. 

b. Eye — Compound. 

c. Tongue — Two tubular 

threads for sucking and 
coiled when not in use. 
B. Thorax. 

a. Legs — Six. 

(a) Weak and used only 
when resting o r 
feeding. 

b. Wings — Large and strong. 

(a) First pair triangu- 
lar, second rounded. 

(b) Richly colored and 
covered with beauti- 
ful scales. 

(c) Power — Great. 

(d) Position — Held up- 
right when at rest. 

Abdomen 




CATERPILLAR, PUPA, AND BUTTERFLY. 



in. Metamorphosis, 
1. Eggs 



3. 



A. Where deposited (Singly or in clusters on plant where larvae feeds) 

B. Contains what? 

a. Germ of larva. 

b. Fluid to nourish germ. 

C. Period of incubation. 

a. Warm countries — Not over three weeks. 

b. Cold climate — Much longer. 

(a) Sometimes eggs deposited in fall do not hatch till spring. 
Larvae. 

A. Length of time — Varies with climate. 

a. Temperate regions — Three to four months. 

b. Cold regions — Eight to ten months. 

B. Caterpillar — Wormlike. 

a. Characteristic — Great feeder. 

b. Appearance — Very uncouth. 

c. Destructiveness — Great. 
Pupa stage, 

A. Chrysalis — With hard outer case. 

B. How supported. 

a. Many species attach themselves to leaves and hang head down 

ward. 

b. Others atfeach themselves at one end or suspend themselves witl 

silk cord. 

c. State of life. 

(a) Appearance — Lifeless. 

(b) Breathing — Through small pores. 

d. Length of time in chrysalis stage. 

(a) Some — A few weeks, 

(b) Others — Continue through winter. 

28 



4. Image. 

A. Resemblance to caterpillar for few hours. 

B. Time of life — A few days. 

IV. Characteristics. 

1. Diurnal day flyers. 

2. Clubbed antennae. 

3. Admired for beauty. 

4. Migration. 

A. Tropical regions — Often moving many miles. 

B. Smaller species — Zigzag motion, often stopping to rest. 

5. Male and female — Differ in color and size. 

6. Purpose — To deposit eggs. 

V. Food. 

1. Nectar of flowers. 

VI. Habits. 

1. Active in warm weather. 

2. Associated with most beautiful vegetation and natural scenery. 

VII. Classes (50,000 species in the world). 

1. Brush-footed butterflies. 

2. Metal marks. 

3. Blues, Coppers, and Hair-streaks. 

4. Swallow-tails. 

5. Skippers. 

VIII. Where Found. 

1. All parts of the world (As far north as Greenland — as far south as the 
Antarctic islands). 



Memory Gems. 

Oh ! pleasant, pleasant, were the days, 
The times when in our childish plays, 
My sister Emmeline and I 
Together chased the butterfly! 
A very hunter did I rush 
Upon the prey; with leaps and springs 
I followed on from brake and bush ; 
But she, God love her! feared to brush 
The dust from off its wings. 

— Wordsworth. 



A butterfly basked on a baby's grave. 

Where a hly had chanced to grow: 

"Why art thou here, with thy gaudy dye, 

When she of the blue and sparkling eye, 

Must sleep in the churchyard low?" 

Then it lightly soared through the svmny air, 

And spoke from its shining track : 

"I was a worm till I won wings, 

And she whom thou mourn'st like a seraph sings ; 

Wouldst thou call the bless'd one back?" 

29 



c^ 




BLACKBOARD LESSON. 
30 



To a Butterfly. 

Come td us often, fear no wrong, 

Sit near us on the bough. 

We'll talk of sunshine and of song. 

And summer days when we were young; 

Sweet childish days, that were as long 

As twenty days are now. 

— W ordsworth. 

The Child and the Butterfly. 

"Oh, butterfly, how do you, pray. 
Your wings so prettily array? 
Where do you find the paints from which 
To mix your colors, warm and rich?" 

The butterfly, in answer, said : 
"The roses lend me pink and red, 
The violets their blue, 
And every flower its chosen hue. 

"My palette is a rose-leaf fair. 
My brush is formed of maiden-hair, 
And dewdrops shining in the grass 
Serve nicely for my looking-glass f" 

— Nixon Waterman. 

Questions on the Butterfly. 

How many wings have butterflies ? 419. 

Into how many stages or periods may the life of a butterfly be divided? 

How many months does it live in a wormlike form? 

Where does it lay its eggs ? 

By what agency are the eggs hatched? 

How far north are they found ? 

Do they have feathers? 

What can you say about the destructiveness of the caterpillar? 

What can you say about the length of life of a full-grown butterfly? 

How many species of butterflies are there ? 

In what countries are butterflies found having wings a foot across ? 

How do butterflies protect themselves from their enemies? 

Give three ways in which to determine the butterfly from the moth. 

Name four kinds of moths. 1460. 

What species of butterflies move about by twilight ? 

On what do butterflies feed? 419. 

How many eggs will a single butterfly or moth lay? 506. 

Which is the greater pest, the butterfly or caterpillar, and why? 

How long does it take the caterpillar to turn into a butterfly under favorable 
conditions ? 

What are the principal enemies of caterpillars ? 

Do caterpillars eat flesh? 

What can you say of the enormous amount of food consumed by the caterpil- 
lar compared to the weight of the larva? 

How many legs has the caterpillai which produces butterflies ? 

How many eyes has a caterpillar ? 

3 31 



Cocoanut. 



I. Where Found. 

1. Native to Africa, East Indies, West 

Indies, South America. 

2. Cultivated extensively in tropical 

regions. 

II. Description. 

1. Tree. 

A. Height (Straight naked trunk 
40 to 60 ft). 

2. Leaves. 

A. Featherlike, growing in bunch 
at summit. 

3. Fruit or nuts. 

A. In clusters of a dozen or more. 

B. Length (3 to 8 inches). 

C. Cover (Fibrous husk). 

D. Inside kernel (Firm, white, 

fleshy). 

E. Milk (Within kernel, sweet 

and watery), 

TIL Products of Fruit. 

1. Kernel. 

A. Article of food. 

B. Copra. C. Cocoa butter. 

2. Fibrous cover. 

A. Manufacture of yarn, matting, 
and cordage. 

3. Shells. 

A. Cups and vessels. ^ 

IV. Products of Tree. 



Wood. 

A. Construction of houses 
other building purposes. 
Sap. 

A. Arrack. B. Jaggery. 

Leaves. 

A. To thatch cottages. 



and 




cocoanut palm. 

A, Branch with flowers. B, male flower; 
male flower, D, fruit with the shell opened. 



C, f c 



Questions on the Cocoanut. 

Of what tree is the cocoanut a fruit and in what countries does it grow ? 616. 
Describe the cocoanut as to size and covering? 
What articles of food are manufactured from the cocoanut? 
What is copra and how is it made ? 

What articles are manufactured from the fiber covering of the cocoanut? 
What articles are made from the shell of the nut ? 
What use is made of the wood of the tree? 

What can you say of the color, use, and taste of cocoa butter ? 
Name three products made from the juice of the tree. 
What is the height of a cocoanut tree ? 
How many cocoanuts grow on a tree? 
What use is made of the leaves of the cocoanut tree ? 

What part of the cocoanut tree is used to make writing paper ? For making 
baskets ? 

82 



What part of the leaf is useful for makin_2^ boat oars ? 
What pan of the leaves is used for making drums ? 
What part of the tree is used for medicine? For chewmg gum? 
How is chocolate made ? 
' What do the ashes of cocoanut leaves yield ? 
What part of the tree is used for making cradles and clothes ? 
What part of the tree is used for making baskets and buckets ? 
What use is made of the terminal bud of the cocoanut tree? 



Coffee. 




I. Where Found. 

1. Native to Abyssinia and Arabia. 

3. Cultivated — West Indies, Bermuda, Brazil, Ceylon, Mexico, Central 
America. 

II. Description. 

1. Tree. 

A. Wild (15 to 30 ft.). 

B. Cultivated (S to 10 ft.). 

2. Leaves. 

A. Dark green color. 

B. Waxy appearance. 

3. Flowers. 

A. Color--- White. 

B. Where placed. 

(a) Axils of leaves. 

4. Fruit. 

A. Oval, dark red berry resem- 
bHng cherry. 

(a) Berry contains two 
cells. The coffee nib of 
greenish color. 

III. How Gathered and Prepared for coffee plant. 

Commerce. A",Flower;B,Fruit stock ;C, Fruit; b, Section of Fruit. 

1. Placing canvas under tree and shaking. 

2. Berries dried in sun. 

3. Passed between rollers which crush pulp. 

4. Pulp removed by winnowing. 

5. Seeds thoroughly dried. 

6. Packed in large sack. 

7. Roasted to produce brown color and caffeine. 
Use. 
1. Assists digestion, retards waste, exhilarates spirits. 

Kinds. 

1. Mocha (Red Sea). 

2. Java. 

3. Jamaica. 

4. Rio (South America). 
History. ^ 

1. Unknown to Greeks and Romans. 

2. Dutch first cultivated it. 

3. Seeds brought to Java in 1690. 

4. Brazil and South America in 1774. 
VII. Annual Output. 

1. 1,550,000 tons (50 per cent, in Brazil). 

33 



IV. 
V. 



VI. 



VIII. Consumption per Person per Year. 

1. Holland (23 lbs.). 

2. Belgium (11 lbs.). 

3. United States (10 lbs.). 

4. Germany (6 lbs.). 

5. France (4 lbs.). 

6. Great Britain (lib.). 



Coffee ifi Literature. 

Coffee, which makes the politician wise, 
And see through all things with his half-shut eyes. 

—Pope 

In the late Civil War, the desire of the soldiers upon halting after a wearisome march, 
was to make a cup of coffee. This was taken without milk, and often without sugar, yet 
was always welcome. 

—Steele. 

The coffee houses devise and spread abroad divers false, malicious, and scandalous re- 
ports to the defamation of his majesty's government, and to the disturbance of the peace 
and quiet of the nation. 

— From proclamation of Charles II. (1675). 

The Turks have a dish called coffee (for they use no wine), so named from a berry as 
black as soot and as bitter, which they sip as warm as they can suffer, because they find 
by experience that that kind of drink so used helps digestion and procures alacrity. 

—Burton. 



Questions on Coffee. 

To what countries is coffee native? 

What is the height of the coffee tree in its native state ? Why is it treated to 
make it smaller? 

Theine in tea is closely identified with what constituent in coffee ? 

What is caffeine and how is it developed ? 

Give three points in favor of using coffee as a beverage. 

With what is coffee adulterated ? How may this be avoided ? 

Name several kinds of coffee and tell where each is grown. 

What is the world's annual output? By which country is half of it pro- 
duced? 619. 

From where do United States and Canada secure their supply? 

What is the annual consumption of coffee per person in Holland ? In Great 
Britain ? 

Through what people was coffee brought to other countries ? 619. 

Describe the preparation of coffee from the time the berries are ready for 
gathering until it is in the cups before you on the dining table. 

34 



4. 
5. 



6. 

7. 




drane. 

I. Genus — Grus. 

II. Specie — Wader. 

III. Migration — Winter bird of passage. 

IV. Description. 

1. Size — ^About four feet high; 45 in. 

long. 

2. Color — Ash gray, or bluish white. 

3. Head — More or less naked. 
Neck — Long, arched. 
Windpipe — Perfectly straight at 

birth, coiled and from 3 ft. to 5 

ft. long in adults. crowned crane. 

Bill — Short, compressed, and used as means of defense. 
Wings — Short, rounded, and powerful. 
S. Legs — Long and slender. 
9. Feet — Unwebbed ; hind toe greatly elevated. 

V. Food. 

1. Worms. 4. 

2. Insects. 5. 

3. Roots. 6. 

VI. Nests. 

1. A. On the ground, or in low bushes. 

2. Eggs — Two. 

VII. Classification and Homes. 

1. Crowned — Northern and Western Africa,. 

2. Demoiselle — Central Asia and Africa (so called from elegance 
form), 



Seeds. 

Snakes. 

Small quadrupeds. 

B. Marshes. 



of its 



3. Whooping — North America 

sounds with its voice). 

4. Sand-hill — North America. 
6. Crowned — Northern Africa. 

VIIL Habits. 

1. Travel by night. 



3. Fly in wedge-shaped flocks, or in single lines. 



(extensive trachea, producing resonant 
5. Sacred (Japan and India). 

2. Alight for food in daytime. 



IX. 



X. 



4. Have single leader. 




5. Travel at g 


Use. 






1. Food. 




3. Pets. 


2. Plumage. 




4. Exhibition. 


Characteristics. 






1. Dances (During courtship) 




2. Antics. 


3. Display of feathers (Like 


peacock) 


4. Docility. 


5. Whooping. 







Questions on the Crane. 

In what respects do cranes differ from storks and herons ? 696. 
Name several classes of, cranes. 
Why is the demoiselle crane so called ? 

What peculiarity is there about the trachea of the whooping crane ? 
Where is most of their food obtained? 
How are they adapted for life in the lowlands? 
When do they migrate ? Mention some uses of cranes. 
At what time do these birds perform peculiar antics ? 
In what countries are they held sacred? 
What is their means of defense? 
Which species are best known in United States ? 
In what respect are they like peacocks? 

Describe the crowned crane and note the peculiarity about the head. 

35 



Dog. 

I. Origin and Family. 

1. Genus — Canis. 

2. Related animals — Fox, jackal, and wolf. 

3. Possible origin — From the wolf. 




1, Setter; 



FAMILIAR BREEDS OP DOGS. 
2, Pointer; 3, Pug; 4, Bulldog; 



5, German Boarliound. 



Aids in subduing other animals. 



11. History and Antiquity. 

1. Mentioned in the books of Moses and the writings of Homer, 

2. Carved on an Assyrian monument. 

3. Represented in Egyptian sculptures. 

4. Used in sacrifice to deities by Romans, Greeks, and Celts. 

5. Employed as executioners, 

in. Description. 

1. Size — Varies. 

3. Color — Nearly all colors. 

3. Structure — Varies greatly. 

4. Hair — Straight, curly, or shaggy. 

5. Voice and habits — Differ widely. 

6. Intelligence and friendship — The truest animal friend to man. 

7. Sense of smell — Often very acute. 

IV, Uses to Mankind, 
1. 

2. Assists in hunting, 

3. Protects human life and property against enemies. 

4. Saves life at sea and in storms. 

5. Tracks criminals. 

6. Acts as guard and carries dispatches for armies. 

7. Serves many conveniences in society. 

8.. Is used for food — By Indians and Eskimos. 

9. Runs errands and carries parcels. 

10. Is employed in herding stock. 

11. Is used as a beast of burden, principally by the Eskimos. 

12. Used in shows for performing animals. 

13. Employed by the police to capture other dogs and criminals. 

14. Hide is used for making leather and furs, 

V. Characteristics, 

1. Born with eyes closed (Attains sight in eight to twelve days), 

2. Maturity reached at about two years. 

3. Average life (10 to 12 years). 



36 



VI. Classification. 

1. Wolf dogs. 

A. Saint Bernard. 

B. Eskimo. 

C. Spitz. 

D. Newfoundland. 

E. Shepherd. 

F. Scotch Collie. 

G. Welsh. 

H. Schipperke. 
I. Nootka. 
J. Siberian. 

2. Greyhounds. 

A. Irish hound. 

B. Greyhound. 

C. Brinjaree dog. 

D. Lurcher. 

E. Egyptian street dog. 

F. Scotch. 

G. Italian. 
H. Turkish. 
I. Russian. 

3. Watch dogs. 

A. Danish dog. 

B. German boarhound. 

C. Matin, or Indian, dog. 

D. Arabian boarhound. 

E. Shepherd dog. 

4. Hounds. 

A. Old Southern hound. 

B. Staghound. 

C. Bloodhound. 

a. English. 

b. Cuban. 

c. Russian. 

D. Harrier. 

E. Pointer. 

F. Foxhound. 

G. Setter. 

a. Irish. 



b. English. 

c. Scotch or Gordon. 

d. Russian. 
H. Blenheim. 

I. Beagle. 
J. Springer. 
K. Cocker. 
L. Poodle dog. 
M. Hound. 
N. Spaniel. 

a. Lamb spaniel. 

b. Water spaniel. 

c. Toy spaniel. 

d. Maltese spaniel. 

e. Blenheim spaniel. 

f. King Charles' dogs. 

g. Cocker spaniel. 

h. Mexican water span- 
iel. 

5. Cur dogs. 

A. Fox terrier. 

B. Terrier. 

a. Scotch. 

b. Bull. 

c. Welsh. 

d. Irish. 

e. Skye. 

f. Boston. 

g. Clydesdale, 
h. Yorkshire, 
i. Maltese. 

j. Dandie Dinmont. 

6. Mastiffs. 

A. Bulldog. 

B. Pug dog. 

a. India pug. 

b. Holland pug. 

7. Unclassified. 

A. Wild dogs. 

a. Dingo. 

b. Dhole. 



Questions on the Dog. 

Are wild dogs and domestic dogs of the same species ? 810. 

In what books do we find the first mention of dogs ? 

What other animals belong to the dog family ? 

Do naturalists agree upon the origin of dogs ? 

In what country is there a species of dogs found which have no hair? 



37 



In what countries have dogs been sacrificed to certain deities ? 

In what countries are dogs used for beasts of burden ? 

What use is made of dogs in the European armies? 

Are dogs regarded as personal property ? 

Tell why the dog is the best friend of man of all animals. 

How old do dogs live to be ? 

What kind of a dog would you select to catch a criminal? Why? 

What breed of dogs can run the fastest? 

Tell the story of Robert Bruce's escape from bloodhounds. 

Name five ways in which dogs are useful to man. 

Will a dog give his life for his master? 

How old is a puppy before it opens its eyes ? 

What articles are made from the hide of dogs ? 

Describe the Eskimo dog. How far can a team pull a sledge in a day ? 

Tell what you can about the practice of bull baiting and the bulldog in former 
times in England. 

Name three of the best known species of bloodhounds. Describe their ears 
and lips. 

Where did the pug dog originate ? 

What is the favorite dog of Scotland ? 

Tell how the staghound differs from the greyhound. 

Name five kinds of hounds and tell what each is noted for. 

What breed of dogs is the most useful on the farm ? Why ? 2811. 

Of what special use is the terrier? 2848. 



The Dog in Literature. 

Every dog must have his day. 

— Swift. 

His faithful dog shall bear him company. 

—Pope. 

With eye upraised, his master's looks to scan, 
The joy, the solace, and the aid of man ; 
The rich man's guardian, and the poor man's friend, 
The only creature faithful to the end. 

— Crabbe. 

Ay, in the catalogue ye go for men ; 
As hounds, and greyhounds, mongrels, spaniels, curs, 
Sloughs, water-rugs, and demi-wolves, are 'clept 
All by the name of dogs : the valued file 
Distinguishes the swift, the slow, the subtle. 
The housekeeper, the hunter, every one 
According to the gift which bounteous nature 
Hath in him closed. 

— Shakespeare. 

38 




Duck. 

I. Lamellirostres. 

1. Anatidae. 

II. Description. 

1. Bills (Broad, flat, and serrated; cov- 
ered with a tender sensitive cover- 
ing). 

3. Legs — Short. 

3. Feet— Webbed. 

4. Excellent swimmers. 

5. Good divers. 

6. Mostly strong on wing. MAi,i.ard duck-mai.e and femai^e. 

III. Classes. 
1. Wild. 

A. Mallard. 

a. Found in North America (A fine game bird). 

b. Color. 

(a) Male — Head, bluish-green ; neck, chestnut colored with 
ring of white ; body, various light, blue, and greenish 
shades ; tail feathers, curved, 
(b) Female — Grayish color. 
:c. Original of tame duck. 

B. Canvasback. 

a. Native of North America (Along estuaries and inland waters). 

b. Length (20 in.). 

c. Color. 

(a) Male — Head, reddish; bill, black; back and sides, grayish 

with lines like coarse canvas. 

(b) Female — Smaller and grayish. 

d. Migratory — Moving northward in March. 

e. Prized for flesh. 

C. Shoveler. 

a. Bill — Shovel shaped. 

b. Color. 

(a) Male — Finely decorated ; breast, white ; head and tail cov- 

erts, greenish. 

(b) Female — Dull plumage. 

c. Valued for flesh. 

D. Galwall, or Gray^ duck. 

a. Found in northern part of both hemispheres, in fresh water. 

b. Color — Black and white. 

c. Flesh — Prized for food. 

d. Migratory — Moving south in winter. 

E. Eider Duck. 

a. Found on rocky shores of America and Europe. 

b. Color. 

(a) Male — Black and white spotted. 

(b) Female — Reddish drab, mixed with black and white bands 

on wings. 

c. Food — Insects, shellfish, small fish. 

d. Down from breast of female used for commerce. 

e. Eggs gathered for market. 

39 



F. Wood Duck. 

a. Remarkable for beauty. 

b. Migration. 

G. Pintail. 

a. Domesticated. 

(a) Normandy. 

(b) Picardy. 

(c) Aylesbury. 

(d) Musk duck — Largest of ducks. 

IV. Habits. 

1. Migration (Most species breed in higher latitudes). 
3. Nest (Where built). 

A. Generally among reeds near fresh water. 

B. Sometimes in hollows of trees or crevices of rocks. 
3. Eggs (Number 6 to 12). 

V. Characteristics. 

1. Walking — Awkward, with waddling motion, 

2. Flight— Brisk. 

3. Swimming — Ability highly developed. 

4. Plumage. 

A. Marked difference between male and female. 

B. Male has four curved tail feathers. 

5. Voice of male — Low and basslike. 
VL Food. 

1. Animal. 

2. Vegetable. 
VIL Use. 

1. Food. 

3. Feathers. 
3. Down. 



Ode to a Water Fowl. 

Whither 'midst falling dew, All day thy wings have fanned, 

While glow the heavens with the last steps of day, At that far height, the cold, thin atmosphere. 

Far, through their rosy depths, dost thou pursue Yet stoop not, weary, to the welcome land. 

Thy solitary way? Though the dark night is near. 

Vainly the fowler's eye And soon that toil shall end. 

Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong. Soon shalt thou find a summer home, and rest. 

As, darkly painted on the crimson sky, And scream among thy fellows ; reeds shall bend, 

Thy figure floats along. Soon o'er thy sheltered nest. 

Seek'st thou the plashy brink Thou'rt gone; the abyss of heaven 

Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide, Hath swallowed up thy form ; yet, on my heart. 

Or where the rocky billows rise and sink Deeply has sunk the lesson thou hast given, 

On the chafed ocean side? And shall not soon depart. 

There is a power whose care He, who, from zone to zone. 

Teaches the way along that pathless coast. Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight. 

The desert and illimitable air. In the long way that I must tread alone. 

Lone wandering, but not lost. Will lead my steps aright. 

— fFilliam Cullen Bryant. 

40 



The Impervious Duck. 

"How hoarse you are!" the wild Duck said, 
"You've got your feet wet in the channel ; 

You're only fit to go to bed 
And have your throat wrapp'd up in flannel." 

"Tut, tut!" replied the Drake; "in truth 

There's no occasion for these qualms, dear: 

The Corncraik's hoarser far; in youth 

He spoilt his voice with singing psalms, dear." 

"That's more than ever you did," cried 

The angry Duck; "it's most provoking 
To such a creature to be tied ; 

I know your feet are simply soaking." 

The season'd Mallard softly laid 

His bill among his shouldei--feathers, 
Serenely shut his eyes and paid 

No more attention to her blethers. 

— 'Henry Johnstone. 



Memory Gem. 

And this our life, exempt from public haunt, finds tongues in trees, books in running 
brooks, sermons in stones, and good in everything. Shakespeare. 



Test Questions on the Duck. 

How many eggs do ducks lay ? 
Where do they lay their eggs ? 

What is the most common duck of Central North America ? 
Describe the mallard duck. 837. 

From what kind of wild species have most of our domestic ducks been devel- 
oped? 

Which is the most valuable as food, duck eggs or hen eggs? 

What is the largest species of the duck family ? 

Of what continent is the musk duck a native ? 

What can you say of the flesh of ducks as food? 

What can you say of the migration of ducks ? 

Which lays the most eggs in a year, a duck or a hen ? 

What is the distinction in plumage in male and female ? 

Why is the pintail duck so called ? 

What can you say about the regularity of size and shape of duck bills? 

How can you tell a male from a female duck without seeing them? 

Is the duckbill a duck? 837. 

Give three important uses of the duck, 

41 



Eagle. 



I. Genus — ^Aquila, 

1. Family — Falconidae. 

A. Eagles. 

B. Hawks. 

C. Falcons. 

II. Classes. 

1. Golden Eagle. 

A. Dark brown — Tawny color. 

B. Yellowish tinge on back of head 

and neck. 

C. Length. 

a. 3 ft. from beak to end of tail. 

b. 6 ft. expanded wings. 

D. Food. 

a. Poultry. 

b. Rabbits. 

c. Small quadrupeds. 

E. Where found. 

a. Eurasia. 

b. North America. 

2. Sea Eagle. 

A. Grayish brown color. 

B. White tail. 

C. Pale colored head. 

D. Food — Fish and marine animals. 

E. Where found. 

a. Coasts of lakes and seas. 

3. Bald Eagle. 




A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 



E. 
F. 



Color — Brown. 

Neck, head, and tail white (After three years). 

Great cowards and thieves. 

Nest. 

a. Tall tree. 

b. Consists of sticks, sod, grass. 

c. Nest added to year by year. 
Food — Fish. 
Where found. 

a. America and Northern Eurasia. 

4. Serpent Eagle. 

A. Southern Asia and Northern Africa. 

5. Harpy Eagle. 
A. 

B. Bill— Crooked 
Claws — Strong and sharp. 
Color — Dark gray, barred with black above 
Breast — White. 
Head bears handsome crest. 

G. Feathers used by Indian for decorations. 
H. Found in tropics. 
Lammergeier. 

A. Length — Four feet. 

B, Wing expansion — 9 ft. to 12 ft. 

42 



BALD EAGLE- 



Larger than golden eagle. 



C. 
D. 

E. 
F. 



C. Food. • . 

a. Carrion. 

b. Living prey — Kids, lambs, chamois, and hares. 

c. Where found. 

Southern part of Europe and Asia. 
Northern part of Africa. 
7. Other species. 

a. Imperial. b. Eagle hawk. c. Crested eagle. 

III. History. 

1. Symbol of Persians 401 b. c. 

2. War standard to Egyptians. 

3. Romans 104 B. c. (Military standard). 

4. Napoleon adopted eagle as symbol of France. 

5. Double-headed eagle, emblem of Russia. 

6. Introduction into Germany by Charlemagne. 

7. Prussian Order of Black Eagle. 1701. 

8. Standard of Austria. 

9. Symbol of United States, representing fortitude, power, courage, nobility. 



The Bald Eagle. 

High soars a patriarchal oak, 
Its umbrage scath'd by Hghtning-stroke, 
Upon whose topmost bough doth dwell 
An eagle, monarch of the dell, 
O'erlooking from his eyrie grand, 
The wide expanse of forest land ; 
Now rising high in air to sweep 
In circling rings the upper deep, 
Now pois'd and balanc'd in mid-space, 
As resting on his airy chase; 
Now sweeping downward on its way 
As pirate bark sweeps on its prey. 

— Isaac McLellan. 



Questions on the Eagle. 

What bird soars the highest in flight? 852. 

Where is the golden eagle found ? Describe it. 

In what countries is the bald eagle found ? 

Do eagles eat carrion ? 

What can you say about the eagle as a symbol of societies and nations? 

When and by whom was the eagle adopted as the symbol for France? 

Who introduced the eagle in Germany as the standard? 

How many orders of societies of eagles are there in Germany? 

Describe the Prussian Order of the Black Eagle. 853. 

When did France abolish the eagle as a symbol ? 

What bird is regarded as the most noble and courageous of the birds of prey ? 

Describe the sea eagle. 

Where is the harpy eagle found ? Where does it live and upon what does it 
feed? 1256. 

What use did the Indian make of its feathers? 

Will they attack a human being? 

For what does the eagle stand ? 

How did the ancient Prussians regard the eagle ? 

What was the custom among the Romans in regard to the eagles of silver and 
gold? 

What is the value of the gold eagle of the United States ? 

When coined and what is the weight? 

43 



Fly. 




I. DiPTERA (Two winged). 

II. Species (Over 40,000). 

III. Description. 

1. Wings — One pair present; second pair reduced to threadlike appendages 

(Balancers). 

2. Head— Small. 

3. Month parts— Adapted for piercing and sucking. 

4^ Eyes — Very large and compound, sometimes containing as many as 4,000 

single eyes. 
5_ peet — Delicate pads for climbing upon smooth surfaces. 

IV. Metamorphosis. 

1. Eggs. 

A. Deposited in refuse. 

B. Hatched in one day. 

2. Larvae (Maggots) — Active scaven- 

gers. <^ I Y ^ -^Ua 

3. Pupa stage (14 days). ^^ muscid; 2, syrphus; la, fly'S foot. 

4. Rapidity of increase exceedingly great. 

V. Characteristics. 

1. Skill in walking — Able to walk on smooth surface and with back down- 
ward. 
A. How — 

a. By hairlike cushion. 

b. Partly by glutinous fluid secretion. 

c. Partly by removing air from feet by suckers. 

VI . Food. 

1. Sweet juices. 

2. Decayed matter and offal. 

VII. Harmfulness. 

1. Annoyance — Great, both to animals and human beings. 

2. Breeders of disease — By carrying germs of decaying matter and depositing 

on food. 

VIII. When Most Prevalent. 

1. In tropics — The entire year. 

2. In Temperate Zone — In the warm season. 



Test Questions on the Fly. 

About how many thousand species of the fly have been described ? 1023. 
How long does it take a fly's egg to hatch ? 
How long do the young remain in the larval stage ? 
How do the flies walk on the ceiling? 
What is the use of flies? 

Where in the United States have 1,500 species of flies been found, in fossil 
and shale beds? 

Do we have a drone fly? 

Describe the under lip of a fly. What is its use? 

Describe the habits of the fly catcher. 

How does the fly balance itself? 

44 



Grapes. 



I. Genus — Vitis (A climbing vine). 

II. Description. 

1. Stem — Woody and supported by strong tendrils. 

2. Bark — Dark brown like that of a tree. 

3. Leaves — Large, broad, deeply three lobed, and hairy, 

4. Blossoms — Small and of a greenish color. 

5. Fruit. 

A. Shape — Round or spherical and grows in clusters. 

B. Size — One-fourth to one inch in diameter. 

C. Color — Green, yellow, red, purple, or variegated. 

D. Interior — Soft pulp, containing two to five seeds. 

E. Outer skin — Tough and indigestible, but contains acid which devel- 

ops flavor in cooking. 
in. Kinds. 

1. Wild (500 species indigenous to North America). 

2. Cultivated. » 

A. Popular species. 

a. Concord. . , e. White Frontignan. 

b. Catawba. f. Madeira. 

c. Niagara. g. Black Prince. 

d. Clinton. 

IV. How Propagated. 

A. Inoculation (Budding). C. Grafting. 

B. Cuttings. D. Seeds. 

V. Cultivation. 

1. Rows — About 10 ft. apart. 

2. Ground — Cultivated in other crops for a couple of years and subject to 

clean culture. 

3. Support, for vines — Trellises. 

4. Trimming — Necessary to secure a large yield. 

5. Where cultivated. 

A. Warm or Temperate zones. 

B. Countries. 

a. Western Asia. 

b. Southern Europe. 

c. United States — New Jersey, Delaware, New York, Ohio, Illinois, 

and California. 

d. Southern part of Canada. 

VI. Use. 

1. Raisins. 2. Wine. 3. Table use. 

VII. History. 

1. Time — Immemorable. 

2. Introduced into Europe by the Phoenicians. 

3. Grape culture in California — Begun by Spanish missionaries in 1771. 

45 



The Grape- Vine Swing. 

Lithe and long as the serpent train, 

Springing and chnging from tree to tree, 
Now darting upward, now down again, 

With a twist and a twirl that are strange to see; 
Never took serpent a deadlier hold, 

Never the cougar a wilder spring, 
Strangling the oak with the boa's fold, 

Spanning the beech with the condor's wing. 

Yet no foe that we fear to seek — 

The boy leaps wild to thy rude embrace ; 
Thy bulging arms bear as soft a cheek 

As ever on lover's breast found place ; 
On thy waving train is a playful hold 

Thou shalt never to lighter grasp persuade; 
While a maiden sits in thy drooping fold. 

And swings and sings in the noonday shade ! 

giant strange of our southern woods, 

I dream of thee still in the well-known spot, 

Though our vessel strains o'er the ocean floods, 

And the northern forest beholds thee not ; 

1 think of thee still with a sweet regret. 

As the cordage yields to my playful grasp, — 
Dost thou spring and cling in our woodlands yet? 
Does the maiden still swing in thy giant clasp? 

— Simms. 



Questions on Grapes. 

Of what region are the best fruit-bearing grapes supposed to be native? 

What people introduced the grape into Europe from Asia? 1181. 

When was the grape first introduced into America? 

Give four ways in which the grape plant may be propagated. 

What is the greatest wine-producing State in the Union ? 

How many species of grapes are indigenous to North America ? 

Tell how grapes are cultured and propagated. 

Name five of the best kinds of market grapes. 

What can you say of the wild grape as to qualities and distribution? 

Do we have seedless grapes ? 

What nations lead in the production of wine? 

What country is noted for its production of the large species of grapes? 

How many times a year does the grape bear in warmer climates ? 

What kind of grapes is used in making sweet wine? 

What State produces the best grade of wine? 3162. 

How is white wine made ? Why is it white ? 

About what per jcent. of grapes does the juice equal of the entire weight? 
3162. 

Explain how cream of tartar is made from the grape. 699. 

Tell how the raisin is made from the grape. What State leads in the produc- 
tion of raisins? 

What countries produce large quantities of raisins ? 2370. 

What can you say of the vineyards of Ontario ? 2038. 

46 



Grasshopper, 




ADULT GRASSHOPPER. 



I. Orthoptera (Straight winged). 

II. Description. 

1. Body — Compressed. 

2. Wings — Four in number, folded 

like sides of a roof. 

A. First pair thickened, over- 

lapping second pair. 

B. Second pair thin and folded 

like a fan. 

3. Legs — Long and slender. 

A. Thighs of hinder legs large 
and adapted for leaping. 

4. Antennae — Long and threadlike. 
IIL Habits. 

1. Often fly in swarms, forming black clouds. 

2. Destruction — Often great, especially to growing crops in arid regions. 

3. Sound. 

A. Very characteristic, caused by rubbing wings and wing covers 

together during flight. 

B. Also by rubbing the serrated hind legs against the wing covers. 

4. Young — Go through stage of metamorphosis. 
IV. Food. 

1. Vegetation. 

2. Insects. 



Questions on Grasshoppers and Locusts. 

Describe the grasshopper. 1182. 

To what other insects are they closely related ? 

How do they produce their peculiar sound? 

Where does the grasshopper deposit its eggs? 

In what states have they been so numerous at times as to obscure the sun? 
1615. 

When are their eggs laid and when do they hatch? 

Describe the locust. 1615. 

What can you say about their destruction of vegetable growth ? 

By what people is the locust used as food ? 

What measures are taken to prevent the advance of locusts in the destruction 
of crops? 

When are locusts the most destructive to crops ? 

In what states are locusts the most abundant ? 

In what way do they interfere with railroad traffic ? 

Which jumps the farthest, the grasshopper or locust? 

How many particular species of locusts are found in North America? 

47 



Heron, 



I. Family — Ardeidae. 

1. Genus — Ardea. 

II. Description. 

1. Bill — Sharp, straight, and longer than 

head and cleft between eyes. 

2. Legs and neck — Long, adapted for wad- 

ing. 

3. Body — Slender and compressed. 

4. Toes — Three in front, two outer united 

by membrane. 

5. Wings — Very long. 

6. Tail — Short, round, and compressed. 

7. Ornamented crests and handsome plumes 

on throat and body. 

8. Movements, 

A. Graceful and elegant on land. 

B. Awkward in flight because of long 

legs stretched out behind. 
in. Classes. 

GREY (BLUE) HERON. 

1. Great blue heron (Native of North America). 

A. Color — Grayish-blue, black quill feathers. 

2. Green heron (North America). 

3. Snowy heron (Gulf of Mexico). 

A. Pure white plumage. 

B. Black legs and bill. 

IV. Haunts — Ponds, marshes, fresh-water streams, lakes, seacoast. 

V. Food. 

1. Secured by wading (Often standing motionless in the water waiting for 

fish). 

2. Insects, frogs, fish, rats, mice, young of birds, mollusks. 

VI. Nest. 

1. Built in trees. 2. Others in bushes. 3. Eggs three to four. 




The Heron in Poetry. 

Oh ! give me back my thicket by the marsh ! 

Let me see the herons wade 

In the watery glade, 
And let me see the water-fowl go by 
Ghinmering against the sky. 

— Maurice Thompson. 

The heron builds her nest in the tall pine, 
That rises high, a watch-tower in the land, — 

The while her mate, by stream or crystal pool, 
Stands, mute and listening, warder of the strand. 

—Ella F. Mosby. 

Far up some brook's still course, whose current mines 

The forest's blackened roots, and whose green marge 

Is seldom visited by human foot, 

The lonely heron sits, and harshly breaks 

The Sabbath silence of the wilderness ; 

And you may find her by some reedy pool, 

Or brooding gloomily on the time-stained rock 

Beside some misty and far-reaching lake. 

48 



Questions on the Heron. 

What other birds are related to the heron ? 1294. 

Name three kinds of herons native to North America. 

Where does it build its nest ? 

How many eggs does it lay ? 

Upon what does the heron feed ? 1295. 

Of what value is the heron ? 

What is the height of the heron ? 

Describe the bill and plumage. 

Which is the taller, a flamingo or heron ? 1010. 

Compare the heron with the spoonbill. 2714. 

Where is the egret found and for what is it noted? 881. 

Describe the snowy egret. For what is it hunted very extensively? 



Grotesque and tall, he stands erect 

Where the reed-riffle swirls and gleams — 

Grave, melancholy, circumspect, 
A hermit of the streams. 

— Ernest M'Gaffey. 



The Brooding Season. 

Soft sits his brooding mate, her guardian he, 
Perch'd on the top of some tall, neighboring tree ; 
Thence, from the thicket to the concave skies, 
His watchful eye around unceasing flies. 

— Alexander Wilson. 



The Great Blue Heron. 

I saw him flit across the leaden west. 
Slow flap his way, poise high the wings of slate, 
The trailing feet upon an oak's dead crest 
To anchor drop, a migrant ship of state. 

I saw him next among his bayous bleak. 

Slim, sombre, mute, and grim, with listless wing; 

With yet a fierce reserve of eye, a beak 

The shafted lightning, egret crowned, a king. 

I saw him last where palms their plumes upreared, 
The mystic ibis of my lady's bower, 
An alien, stark, majestic still, a weird 
Gray ghost of decorative grace and power. 

— /. Vallance Brown. 



49 



Jay, 




I. Order — Passeres. 

1. Family — Corvidae. 

II. Description, 

1. Feet — Adapted for perch- 

ing. 

2. Bill — Rather short and 

sharp. 

3. Wings — Blue or brownish 

red color. 

A. Considerably shorter 
than tail. 

4. Tail — Very long and round- 

ed, sometimes longer than 
body. 

5. Head — Tuft on top. 

III. Species (About 20). 

1. Blue Jay. 

A. Best known and hand- 

somest. 

B. Voice. 

a. Harsh and grating. 

b. Great power of 

imitating other 
birds. 

C. Motion — Fantastic. 
E. Nest. 

a. Trees. 

b. Formed of twigs lined with grass. 

c. Eggs — Four or five, olive-brown, dark spotted. 

2. Canada Jay. 

A. Coloring — Somber. 

B. Bold, noisy, active. 

C. Friend of moose, hanging from its horns in search of parasites. 

D. Northern part of North America. 

3. English Jay. 

A. Larger than blue jay. 

B. Color — Light brown, inclining to red. 

4. European Jay. 

A. Color — Cinnamon, varied with white, black, and blue. 

IV. Where Found. 

1. Both hemispheres. 

V. Food. 

1. Insects, seeds, fruits. 2. Eggs and young birds. 



BLUE JAY. 



EUROPEAN JAY. 



D. Plumage — Bright blue, 
black, and white. 



The Canada Jay. 

With mingled sound of horns and bells, 

A far-heard clang, the wild geese fly, 
Storm-sent from Arctic moors and fells, 

Like a great arrow through the sky, 
Two dusky lines converge in one, 
Chasing the southward-flying sun ; 
■While the brave snow-bird and the hardy jay 
Call to them from the pines, as if to bid them stay. 

— John G. Whittier. 



50 



The Jay in Literature. 

What, i& the jay more precious than the lark, 
Because his feathers are more beautiful? 
Or is the adder better than the eel, 
Because his painted skin contents the eye? 

— Shakespeare. 



Ten thousand warblers cheer the day, and one 
The live-long night : nor these alone the notes 
Nice-fingered art must emulate in vain, 
But cawing rooks, and kites that swim sublime 
In still repeated circles, screaming loud. 
The jay, the pie, and ev'n the boding owl 
That hails the rising moon, have charms for me. 

— Cowper. 



The jay is a jovial bird — Heigh-ho ! 

He chatters all day 

In a frolicsome waj 
With the murmuring breezes that blow — 
Heigh-ho ! 

Hear him noisily call 

From the redwood tree tall 
To his mate in the opposite tree — Heigh-ho ! 

Saying, "How do you do?" 

As his topknot of blue 
Is raised as polite as can be — Heigh-ho ! 

Oh, impudent jay, 
With your plumage so gay, 
And your manners so jaunty and free — 
Heigh-ho ! 
How little you guessed. 
When you robbed the wren's nest, 
That any stray fellow would see — Heigh-ho ! 

— Selected. 



Questions on the Jay. 

To what family of birds does the jay belong? 1445. 

Give three ways in which a jay bird may be distinguished from the crow. 

About how many species of the jay bird are known? 

Describe the head and wings. 

Of what countries are the different species native? 

Name five kinds of food upon which the jay bird feeds. 

Compare the English jay with the American blue jay as to color and size. 

What can you say about the voice and its cultivation when tamed ? 

How does the length of the tail compare with the length of the body? 

51 



L 



emon. 

I. Citrus Medica (Orange Family). 

II. Description. 

1. Tree — Knotty wooded, about eight feet in height. 

3. Leaves — Oval, containing oil used in making extracts. 

3. Fruit. 

A. Shape — Ellipsoidal, with protruding point at each end. 

B. Length — 2 in. to 4 in. 

C. Color — Bright yellow. 

D. Skin— Quite thick. 

E. Internafpulp — Acid 

and juicy. 

F. Number of compart- 

ments — 8 to 12, 
each containing 
several seeds. 

G. Number on tree — 
3,000 or more. 

How Gathered. 

A. Picked while green. 

B. Wrapped in small 

papers. 

C. Shipped in boxes. 

D. Ripened during 

transit. 

IV. Kinds. 

1. Sweet lemon. 

2. Thick-skinned lemon. 

3. Common lemon. 

4. Citron lemon. 

V. Uses. 

1. Oil of lemon — Volatile substance secured from rind pressure. 

2. Extract — Made from imperfect fruit by squeezing 

3. Lemonade. 4. Stimulant in medicine. 

VI. Where Grown. 

1. United States — California and Florida. 

2. Southern Europe. 3. Australia. 



III. 




I, EMON. 
A, Flower; B, Section of Fruit. 



5. Perfumery. 



Questions on the Lemon. 

Which are the more profitable to grow, oranges or lemons ? 
What is the height of a lemon tree? 1568. 
How many lemons will a tree produce in favorable seasons? 
Name four kinds of lemons. 
How is the oil of lemon manufactured? 
How is lemon extract made ? For what is it used ? 

What states in the United States produce the largest quantities of lemons ? 
When was lemon cultivation introduced in Australia? 
What can you say of the keeping properties of the lemon? 
Were lemons known to the ancient Greeks and Romans ? 
Name six uses of the lemon. 

Name two islands in the Mediterranean sea that are noted for their produc- 
tion of lemons. 

Who introduced the cultivation of lemons in Spain and at what date? 

How have lemons been improved? 

What can you say of the wood of the lemon tree ? 

What is the shape of the leaves ? 

52 




I. Description. 

1. Tree. 

A. Evergreen. 

B. Height (15 ft to 30 

ft.). 

C. Growth — Very slow, 

but hardy and long 
lived. 

D. Trunk — As it grows 

old, becomes 
gnarled, broken, 
and twisted. 

2. Leaves. 

A. Shape — Lanceolate 

or oblong. 

B. Surface. 

a. Smooth above 
and horny be- 
neath. 

C. Color — Bluish or 

dusky green. 

3. Flowers. 

A. Size — Small, grow- 

ing in terminal ra- 
cemes or clusters. 

B. Color — Whitish, appearing 

4. Fruit. 

A. Shape — Oblong, spheroidal 

B. Skin — Smooth and thin. 

C. Stone — Hard. 

III. How Prepared for Commerce. 

1. Olives for table use. 

A. In unripe condition. 

B. Soaked in potash and water to reduce bitterness. 

C. Bottled in aromatized brine. 

2. Olive Oil. 

A. Process of securing. 

a. Olives gathered. 

b. Placed immediately in crushing mill and ground into 

c. Pulp placed in press operated by screw. 

d. Oil remains on top^ impurities settling. 

e. Oil oozes from pulp into barrel containing water. 

f. Virgin oil — Product of first pressure. 

§■. Last product inferior, used for soap, pulp, or fuel, 
h. Clarification — Filtered through sand and charcoal. 

IV. Where Found. 

1. Native of Syria. 

2. Grown in Asia, Europe, Australia, Southern States, California. 

V. How Propagated. 

1. Slips. 2. Seeds. 3. Grafting. 

VI. Use. 

1. Table us?. 2. For olive oil. 

3. Wood prized in cabinet work. 

4. For adulterating and flavoring tea (China). 

53 



OLIVE. 
A, Cluster of flowers; B, Single flower; C, Fruit. 

in June, July, and August. 



D. Pulp — Soft and greenish. 



pulp. 



VII. History. 

1. Associated with garden of Gethsemane. 

2. Held sacred to Minerva by ancients. 

3. Wreaths of olives — Placed on brows of victors by Greeks and Romans. 

4. Emblem of peace — So regarded by many nations. 

5. Introduced in United States — 200 years ago, 



Questions on the Olive. 

What can you say of the use and value of olive wood ? 2032. 
How was the olive tree regarded by the ancients? 
What is the height of the olive tree? 
What is the color of the flower? 
How old wilt an olive tree live to be? 
How is the bitter taste of olives reduced? 
How is olive oil made? 
What is virgin olive oil ? 

What quality of olive oil is used in soap making? 
What part of the olive is used for fuel ? 
How is the olive tree propagated? 
When was olive oil introduced in the United States ? 
In what countries are plantations of olive trees most abundant? 
How is olive oil clarified to give it its beautiful golden color? 
The oil of what nut is sold as a substitute of olive oil? 
Olives intended for table use are picked in what condition? 
The olive branch is a symbol of what? 
What are the principal uses of the olive fruit ? 

What commercial product is sometimes adulterated by the use of olive 
leaves ? 



Orange. 



I. Order — Rutaceae. 

II. Description. 

1. Tree. 

A. Small evergreen. • C. Time required to bear, 6 years. 

B. Height (Wild 30 ft.; tame, D. Age (Often 600 years). 

much less). E. Wood — Fine grained, smooth. 

2. Leaves. 

A. Color — Green. B. Shape — Oblong, thick, smooth. 

3. Flower. 

A. White' — Waxlike and fragrant. B. Worn by brides. 

4. Fruit. 

A. Color — Bright yellow. C. Rind — Thick. 

B. Shape — Spherical. D. Pulp — Collection of oblong seg- 

ments filled with luscious 
juice. 

54 



III. 



2. 
3. 



pulped, 



9 
10 
11 



IV, 



V. 



Varieties. 

1. China orange. 

Lisbon orange. 

Maltese, or red 
orange. 

4. Mandarin, or clove (Small 

and flattened) orange, 

5. Saint Michael. 

6. Majorca seedless. 

7. Tangerine. 

8. Valencia. 
Egg orange (Oval shape). 
Navel — seedless. 
Blood oranges — Dark red 

juice. 
12. Russets — Florida. 
How Picked. 

1. Picked while green. 

2. Wrapped in paper. 

3. Shipped in boxes of 250. 

4. Ripened during transit. 
Use. 

1. Sweet, for eating. 

2. Bitter, for flavoring and medi- 

cine. 

3. Fragrant oils from rind, leaves, 

and flowers. 

4. Curacoa — Drink. 




ORANGE. 



VI. Where Grown. 

1. United States — California, 

Florida, and Louisiana. 

2. Mexico. 

3. West Indes. 4. East Indies. 
5. China. 6. India. 

7. Australia. 8. North Africa. 



Questions on the Orange. 

At what age does the orange tree begin to bear fruit? 2045. 

Which obtains the greater age, an orange tree or an olive tree? 

Which produces the greater number of fruit, orange trees or lemon trees ? 

What is Curagoa ? Is it made from the best class of oranges ? 

About how many oranges are shipped in a box? 

What is the name of the variety of oranges which are egg shaped? 

What is a Maltese orange? 

What is a clove orange, or Mandarin orange? 

How do the different species of orange fruit originate? 

What is the color of orange flowers and what can you say of their fra- 
grance ? 

When was the first orange cultivated in Portugal? 

Of what country is the orange a native? 

What states produce the most oranges? 

What is the difference between the California orange and the Florida orange ? 

What is a blood orange ? Why is it so called ? 

From what are the fragrant oils of the orange obtained? What are their 
uses? 

Name eight varieties of oranges sold on the market. 

What uses are made of the bitter orange ? 

What can you say of the value of the wood of the orange tree ? 

What can you say of oranges as to food value ? 

Why are orange blossoms worn by brides on their wedding day? 

Why is the navel a special favorite with the consumer? 

55 



Ostrich. 



and 4 




RHEA. 



OSTRICH. 



I. Genus — Cursores. 

1. Related to rhea, emu, cas- 
sowary. 

II. Description. 

1. Largest of living birds. 

2. Height— 6 ft. to 8 ft. 
■ 3. Weight— 70 lbs. to 90 lbs. 

4. Head— Flat. 

5. Bill— Stout. 
Q. Eyes — Large. 

7. Neck — Long and naked. 

8. Legs — Long and power- 

ful, giving great speed. 

9. Toes — Two, correspond- 

ing to third and fourth ^ 
of other birds. 

10. Neck and thighs — Bare. 

11. Wings— Small, of little 
service in flight. 

12. Feathers — Fluffy 

plumelike. 

13. Color. 

A. Males — Shiny, r 

black, with white 
plumes at end of 
wings and tail. 

B. Females — Dull, 

brown color. 

C. Chicks — Striped. 

III. Characteristics. 

1. Timidity. - 

2. Remarkable speed, often outstripping the fastest horse. 

IV. Food. 

1. Wild state. 

A. Herbs, seeds, and fruits. 

2. Domesticated. 

A. Usually fed on alfalfa or grass and clover mixed with fruit. 

V. Rearing of Young. 

1. Nest (Built in sand). 

2. Eggs. 

A. Number — 8 to 15 from several hens. 

B. Weight— About 3 lbs. 

3. Hatching. 

A. Incubated by cock and hen alternating, 

nest at night. 

B, Length of time required for hatching (6 weeks). 

VI. Why Domesticated. 
1. For feathers. 

A. Black and white plumes from male. 

B. Brown from female. 

C. Value — Varying according to size and quality from a few cents to $50. 

VII. How Hunted. 

1. On horseback or by using covering of ostrich skin. 

2. Defend themselves with great vigor by means of powerful legs and "^aks. 

3. Sound — Something like cackle, seldom given except in distress. 

56 



cock usually occupying 



VIII. Where Found. 

1. Native to deserts of Africa and Arabia. 

2. Ostrich farms. 

A. South Africa. C. California. 

B. North Africa. D. Australia. 



Questions on the Ostrich. 

To what countries is the ostrich native ? 2062. 

What other birds resemble the ostrich? 

What is the height of the full-grown ostrich? 

Speak of the ostrich as to size and strength. 

What can you say of its antiquity and mention in early history ? 

How many toes has the ostrich? 

In the wild state, what animals does the ostrich usually follow? 

What is their principal means of safety from their enemies? 

What is the color -of the male ostrich? 

How many plumes will an ostrich yield a year? 

What is the price of ostrich plumes per pound ? 

Tell how ostriches are hunted. 

How many ostrich eggs are laid in the same nest ? 

How are the eggs hatched? 

Which sits on the nest at night, the male or female? 

How many pounds will an ostrich egg weigh? 

How long does it take an ostrich egg to hatch? 

What is the average weight of the ostrich? 

What is the average stride of the ostrich in walking? In running? 

Is the flesh fit to be eaten? 

What are the principal differences between the rhea and the ostrich? 



A Few of the Bird Family. 

The old bob white, and chipbird; 

The flicker and chee-wink. 
And little hopty-skip bird 

Along the river brink. 

The blackbird and snowbird, 

The chicken-hawk and crane; 
The glossy old black crow-bird. 

And buzzard, down the lane. 

The yellowbird and redbird, 

The torn-tit and the cat; 
The thrush and that redhead bird 

The rest's all pickin' at ! 

The jay-bird and the blue bird, 

The sap-suck and the wren — 
The cockadoodle-doo bird, 

And our settin' hen ! 

— James Whitcomb Riley. 

57 



Parrot. 



I. Class — Climbers. 

II. Species — (About 350 known, 150 

of which are in America). 

III. Description. 

1. Size — From that of swallow to 

birds of 3 ft. in length. 

2. Color — Bright green, red, blue, 

and yellow. 

3. Tongue — Soft, large, fleshy 

(Sometimes fringed, or tuft- 
ed). Barbarous tribes some- 
times slit tongue to cause 
better articulation. 

4. Bill — Stout and hooked, mov- 

ably hinged to jaw. 

5. Wings — Short, broad. 

6. Feet — Rough, stout. 

A. Toes. 

a. Two before, two be- 

hind. 

b. Outer toe turned 

backward. 

7. Voice — Coarse and harsh, 

though articulate. 

IV. Food. 

1. Fruit. 

2. Nuts. 

3. Seeds. 

4. Buds. 

5. Plantain. 

6. Insects. 

V. Nests. 

A. Where made. 

1. Hollow trees. 

2. Holes in rocks. 

3. Deserted buildings. 

B. Eggs. 

1. Number~2. 

2. Color— White. 

3. Shape — Rounded. 

VI. Characteristics. 

1. Affectionate. 

2. Imitative. 

3. Docile. 




VII 



GRAY PARROT, 



4. Hardy. 

5. Long lived. 
Kinds. 

1. Gray parrot 

a. Home— 

b. Color— 



-West Africa. 
Ashy white, black 
wing quills, red tail. 
c. Skill — The best of talkers. 

2. Carolina parrot. 

a. Home — United States. 

b. Size — 12 in. or 13 in. long. 

c. Color — Green back, yellow 

head, red cheeks (Fast 
becoming extinct). 

3. Macaw. 

a. Where found. 

b. Size. 

c. Plumage — Beautiful. 

d. Number of broods — Two 

per season. 

4. Cockatoo. 

a. Name — From peculiar 

harsh utterance. 

b. Head — Tufted crown.' 

c. Lives in tribes. 

d. Easily domesticated. 



58 



Questions on the Parrot. 

About how many species of parrots are known? In which country are the 
most species found ? 

What is said of the comparative size of these birds ? Which are the largest 
and where are they found ? 

Why are the love birds so called? Describe the tongue. 

Which species is said to best imitate the human voice ? 

How do the Carolina "parrots differ from others of America ? 

Mention a pecuHar fact of the macaws in brooding. 

What is said of the temperament of parrots? 3114. 

Where do these birds best like to be? What progress do they make when 
going about on the ground ? 

For what are the macaws noted? 

Where are the favorite nesting places ? 

In which zones are parrots most numerous ? 



Story of a Nest. 

Far away in the beautiful land of Brazil, 

Where the birds are all singing o'er valley and hill, 

Two little children walked out 'neath the trees, 

Talking in musical Portuguese; 

And if you will listen to what I say, 

I'll tell you in English their words that day. 

"Sister," said Manuel, "often I've heard. 

That the trees scarce have room for the nest of each bird ; 

For this is the land of these beautiful things. 

And the air seems alive with their songs and their wings; 

And I think that I know of a little bird breast, 

Which was puzzled and troubled for a place for a nest." 

"Now, brother," said Lena, "don't tell me a word, 

Let me hunt for the nest of this crowded out bird." 

So away they went roving o'er hill and through dell ; — 

Of the nests that they found 'twould take hours to tell. 

There were nests in the orange trees, blossoming white, 

There were nests in the coffee trees, glossy and bright, 

There were nests in the hedges, the bushes and grass, 

In the dark, hanging vines, by each roadside and pass. 

There were blue eggs and speckled eggs, brown eggs and white, 

And yellow throats opening with chirpings of fright. 

"Search no longer," said Manuel, "'mid bushes and trees, 

'Tis a stranger place, sister, than any of these." 

"I give up," said Lena, a shade on her brow, 

"Come, hasten, dear Manuel, I'll follow you now." 

Then away to the garden the little feet sped. 

And he showed her the nest in a big cabbage head ! 

— Anna R. Henderson. 



59 



Peach. 



I. Order — Rosaceae. 

II. Description. 

1. Tree (8 ft. to 25 ft. high). 

A. Branches — Irregular. 

B. Leaves — Glossy and lanceolate or willow 

like. 

C. Blossoms — Light pink, appearing 

spring. 

D. Fruit. 

a. Shape — Roundish drupe. 

b. Size — 1 in. to 3 in. in diameter. 

c. Color — Downy reddish, yellowish, 

and whitish skin. 

d. Seed — A furrowed, flattish stone. 

e. Kind. 

(a) Freestone (Fleshy part when 
ripe separates from seed). 

(b) Clingstone (Flesh does not sep- 
arate). 




PEACH flower. 



in. Where Found 
1 



Native of Persia and Syria 
(Several species grow wild). 

2. United States (Grown most 

extensively). 

A. Southern shores of Great 

Lakes. 

B. Central part of Missis- 

sippi valley. 

C. Southern States. 

D. Pacific coast. 

3. Ontario and British Columbia. 



IV. 



V. 



VI, 



VII 



How Propagated (From seed). 
1. Cultivated in orchards. 
Annual Output (In United 
States 40,500,000 bu.). 
Use. 

1. Eaten raw. 

2. Dried. 

3. Peach brandy. 
How Prepared for Market. 

1. Gathered before quite ripe. 

2. Placed in small baskets. 

3. Shipped in refrigerator cars. 



Questions on the Peach. 

Is the peach tree a distinct genus, or is it allied to the almond, cherry, and 
plum? 2131. 

What is the general height of the peach tree ? 

What is the color of its blossoms and which appears first, the leaves or its blos- 
soms ? 

Of what country is the peach tree native? 

When was it introduced into Europe? 

What are the two principal classes of peaches ? 

How old must a peach tree be before it bears? 

How many years have they been known to produce? 

How is the peach tree propagated, from the seed or from cuttings? 

Which provinces of Canada are best adapted to the cultivation of peach or- 
chards. 

Where are the most productive peach-growing regions in the United States ? 

What Southern State produces the most peaches and what is the annual yield 
m the number of bushels ? 

How many bushels of peaches are produced annually in the United States ? 

In what condition are peaches gathered for the market and how are they 
shipped ? 

What can you say about the keeping qualities of dried peaches ? 

Where is peach brandy usually made ? 

60 



Pear. 



I, Family (Rose), 

II. Description. 



Native of Asia. 
Tree, 

A. Wild state — Small and thorny. 

B. Cultivated — Thornless. 

a. Height (25 ft. to 60 ft.). 

b. Diameter (Quite often 3 ft). 

c. Age (Usually live only a few years, 

but some have been known to live 
300 years). 

d. Wood — Hard and durable. . 
and shiny on 




PEAR FLOWER- 



Leaves — Green 

upper side. 
Flower — W h i t e 

apple. 
Fruit. 

A. Resembles apple. 

B. Shape — Irregularly 
cal with base of 
hanging down. 

C. Pulp — When ripe, 



2. 



resembling 



coni- 
cone 

soft, 
sweetish, and delicious 
flavor. 
How Propagated. 

1. Grafting on quince, white 
thorn, and other trees. 

2. Budded on seedlings of species 
called free stocks. 

Varieties (225). 

1. Bartlett pear (90 per cent.). 

2. Seckel pear. 

V. Where Grown. 

1. Practically every country in 
temperate and tropical zones. 



B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 



VI 



III 



IV. 



United States. 
A. California (first rank). 
New York. 
Ohio. 
Michigan. 
Indiana. 
Pennsylvania. 
3. Canada (Prolific producer of 

several fine grades). 
How Prepared for Market. 

1. Picked before ripe. 

2. Wrapped in separate papers. 

3. Transported in refrigerator 
cars. 

Use. 

1. Eaten raw. 
For cooking. 
Manufacture of wine. 
Perry, or pear jcider. 
Wood used in manufacture of 
musical instruments, turners' 
tools, and wood engraving. 
VIII. Annual Crop of the United 
States (3,500,000 bu.). 



VII. 



Questions on the Pear. 

Of what continents is the pear a native ? 2132. 
Describe the wild pear tree and its fruit. 
To what height will a pear tree grow ? 

How great a diameter does a pear tree attain in a favorable climate? 
How many species of pears are recognized by writers at the present time? 
How many in Rome at the time of Pliny? 2132. 

61 



Would a pear tree planted at the time the Pilgrim Fathers landed at Ply- 
mouth Rock be capable of bearing fruit at the present time? 3133. 

Name three uses of pear tree wood in manufacture . 

What is the favorite pear on the American market ? 

What two states rank first in the production of pears ? 

The Bartlett pear constitutes what per cent, of the entire crop of the United 
States ? 

Which is the more valuable, the pear or the peach crop ? 2131 and 2133. 

What is pear cider generally called ? 

In what country is pear cider made in large quantities ? 

How many million bushels is produced annually in United States? 

How are pears dried? 

How are pears prepared for the market and shipped? 

In what countries are they raised ? 

Are apples, pears, and quinces related in family? 2132 and 2355. 

Why is the Japan quince cultivated? 

What use is made of the quince fruit? 2133. 



The River Path. 

There's a path beside the river, 
Winding through the willow copse, 

Where I love to walk in autumn 
Ere the season's curtain drops. 

On far hillsides beech and maple, 

Touched by early nipping frost, 
Havp their brown and crimson jackets 

To the boisterous breezes tossed. 

Still the willow leaves are clinging, 

Latest foliage of fall, 
Shading yet my river pathway 

Underneath the osiers tall. 

On the wimpling water's surface 

Drift a million truant leaves, 
Stolen from the woodland reaches 

By the wind, the prince of thieves. 

All along the river edges 

Verdure's turned to brown and gray. 
Rustling through the dying sedges 

Autumn's low voiced breezes play. 

Nowhere sweeter walk or rarer 

Than my path beside the stream. 
There I love to stroll in autumn, 

There to loiter and to dream. 

— Frank Farrington. 



62 



Pigeon. 

I. Order — Columbae. 

1. Species (Over 500). 

II. Description. 

1. Body— Heavy. 2. Legs— Short. 3. Head— Small. 

4. Wings — Large, strong in flight. 

5. Bill— Short, straight, and compressed (Though upper mandible may be 

slightly curved at tip). 

6. Nostrils — Protected by a fleshy scale. 

7. Color. 

A. Temperate regions— Dull gray, brown, or slate, though some are 

black and white. 

B. Tropical regions— Bright shades of blue and purple. 

III. Classification. 

1. Wild pigeons. 

A. Gouras. 

(a) Found in Papua. 

(b) Length— 2 ft. 

(c) Large and showy crests and rich color. 

B. Passenger. 

(a) Formerly found in great numbers in Northern United States— 

Almost exterminated by hunters. 

(b) Length — 15 in. 

(c) Plumage — Finely tinted. 

(d) Tail — Long and pointed in shape, feathers tapering in regular 

order. 

(e) Formerly migrated in communities of millions. 

(f) Nests — Sometimes hundreds in one tree. 

C. Mourning Pigeon (Or turtle doves). 

(a) Length (10 in.). 

(b) Color (Grayish brown). 

(c) Nest (Built of twigs). 

(d) Eggs (Two — Cream white color). 

(e) Hatching (Male and female alternate sitting on nest). 

(f) Peculiar characteristics (Cooing and affection for mate). 

(g) Other species. 

Carolina turtle dove. 
Collared turtle dove. 

2. Domesticated Pigeons. 

A. Fantail. 

a. Description (Tail large, erect; opens like a fan). 

B. The Carrier, or Homing, Pigeon. 

a. Description. 

(a) Size (Large). 

(b) Beak (Base of — naked). 

(c) Wings (Long). 

(d) Eyes (Surrounded by circle of naked skin). 

(e) Commercial use (For carrying letters or messages). 

(f) Flight (Rate, 30 miles per hour). (Distances, from 200 to 

1,000 miles). 

C. The Pouter. 

a. Peculiar power (To swell crop to a very large size). 

D. Jacobins. 

a. Distinguishing characteristics (Big ruff of feathers a^out the 
neck and head), 

E. Tumblers. 

a. Peculiar habit (Turn somersaults in the air). 
6 63 



b. Beauty and price (Handsome, high price). 
F. Runt. 

IV. Habits. 

1. Perch in trees. 

2. Build nests on some elevated spot. 

A. Domestic pigeons breed in barns. 

B. Both male and female sit on eggs. 

3. Pair for life. 

4. Young at hatching. 

A, Blind, naked, and helpless. 

B. Fed masticated food from crop of parents. 

V. Where Found. 

1. Widely distributed, though most abundant in tropical regions. 

2. Pigeon culture important in India, China, Persia, Belgium, and Holland. 



Y*^. 




The Mother-Dove. 

High on the top of an ol,d pine-tree 
Broods a mother-dove with her young ones three. 
Warm over them is her soft downy breast, 
And they sing so sweetly in their nest. 
"Coo," say the little ones, "Coo," says she, 
All in their nest on the old pine-tree. 

Fast grow the young ones, day and night._ 
Till their wings' are plumed for a longer flight, 
Till unto them at last draws nigh 
The time when they all must say "Good-bye." 
Then "Coo," say the little ones, "Coo," says she. 
And away the}- fl}- from the old pine-tree. 



PASSENGER PIGEON. 

Questions on the Pigeon. 

What can you say about the distribution of pigeons? 
they most abundant? 2312. 

Do pigeons build their nests in trees ? 
What can you say of their variety of color and habits ? 
Where does the domestic pigeon breed ? 
, What can you say about the mating of pigeons ^ 



In what climates are 



Do male and female birds both sit on the eggs ? 



Is this common with other 



kinds of birds ? 

How do they differ in this respect from the ostrich? 2212. 

Name nine kinds of pigeons ? 

Describe the passenger pigeon. 

What are the chief articles of food of pigeons ? 

In what countries is pigeon culture an important industry ? 

From what bird is the domestic pigeon supposed to be a descendant ? 

What is the object in rearing pigeons from a financial standpoint? 

Are turtle doves related to pigeons? 

Describe the turtle dove. 2946. 

How many miles an hour does the passenger pigeon fly? 492. 

What is the best distance record ever made by American homing pigeons? 

Why do they wash the passenger pigeon's feet with vinegar ? 

How is the message attached to the passenger pigeon ? 

How are they trained for service? 

Tell how Joshua in Bible times made use of the passenger pigeon. 491. 

What nation first made use of the passenger pigeon ? 

During the siege of Paris by the German army, in 1870 and 1871, how many 
thousand official messages were carried into the city by means of pigeons ? 

In what countries do they use the trained carrier pigeons in national games ? 

64 



Rabbit. 



L RODENTIA. 

II. Description. 

1. Native of temperate climates. 

2. Ears — Long. 

3. Teeth — Incisors, large, curved, 

and very sharp. 

4. Legs — Hind legs powerfully 

developed. 

5. Toes — 5 on fore feet; 4 on 

hind feet. 

6. Color. 

A. Native state — Brown. 

B. Domestication — Varied, 

including black, white, 
gray, spotted. 

7. Life — Average 6 to 7 years. 

III. Habits. 

1. Gregarious and in wild state 

pairs for life. 

2. Haunts — Sandy pastures and 

hilltops. Remains concealed 
during the day and roams 
around at night. 

3. Young. 

A. Brought forth in litters. 

B. Blind and naked at birth. 

C. Mother cares carefully for 

them in burrows. 

4. Breeding — Age of 6 months. 

A. Several litters a year. 

IV. Characteristics. 

1. Timidity — Seeks safety by 

rapid and continuous run- 
ning. 

2. Senses — Well developed. 

3. Very prolific. 

A. Pest in some countries. 

V. Classes (Several species). 

1. Cottontail, or gray, rabbit. 



2. Dark rabbit (Western states). 

3. Domesticated rabbits. 

A. Albino or white rabbit 
(White hair and pink 
eyes). 

VI. Where Found. 

1. North America, especially 

Mississippi Valley and 
Southern Canada. 

2. Australia (Domesticated). 

VII. Food. 

1. Grass. 

2. Herbage. 

3. Vegetables. 

4. Bark (Often damaging young 

plants and orchards) . 

VIII. Use. 

1. Food. 

2. Hair — For felting purposes. 

3. Skin — In making glue. 

4. Fur — For making caps. 




GRAY rabbit 



Questions on the Rabbit. 

Where is the rabbit supposed to have originated ? 2359. 

Give the distinguishing features of the rabbit and the hare. 

How does the rabbit seek safety from its enemies ? 2360. 

What use is made of the rabbit fur ? 

From what part of the rabbit is glue and size made ? 

In what way are rabbits an injury to orchards? 

When is the best time to go rabbit hunting? 

In what countries have rabbits become a pest? 

At what season of the year is rabbit flesh the best for eatmg? Give reason. 

Describe the cottontail. 

65 



Describe the Jack rabbit. 1428. 

Which is the larger, a Jack rabbit or a Norwegian hare ? 

What is the color of Jack rabbits in the winter? In the summer? 

Where are Jack rabbits found? 1428. 

Is the Jack rabbit a hare ? 1252. 

Describe the polar hare of North America. 

What can you say about their food and their habits ? 

What use is made of the fur of the hare ? 

What can you say about the voice of the hare ? 

Of what continent are they a native? 

About how many young do they produce and how many litters per year? 2360, 

Where do rabbits stay during the daytime? 

Which has the longer ears, a hare or a rabbit? 2359. 

Which can run the faster, the hare or the rabbit? 



The Timid Rabbit. 

Of all the beasts he learned the language, 
Learned their names and all their secrets, 
How the beavers built their lodges, 
Where the squirrels hid their acorns, 
How the reindeer ran so swiftly, 
Why the rabbit was so timid, 
Talked with them whene'er he met them, 
Called them "Hiawatha's Brothers.'" 

***** * * 

And the rabbit from his pathway 
Leaped aside, and at a distance 
Sat erect upon his haunches, 
Half in fear and half in frolic, 
Saying to the little hunter, 
"Do not shoot me, Hiawatha." ^ 

— Longfellow. 



The Hare and the Tortoise. 

A Hare' one day ridiculed the slow pace of the Tortoise, and boasted of his own speed 
in running. 

The Tortoise said, "Let us try a race. I will run with you five miles, and our friend 
the Fox may act as jvidge." 

"All right," said the Hare, and away they went together. The Tortoise jogged along 
with a slow and steady pace to the end of the journey. 

The Hare first outran the Tortoise, then fell behind and began to nibble at the grass 
and to play hide and "seek with other hares. Finallj' he became tired with play and lay 
down for a nap, saying, "If the Tortoise should get ahead of me I could catch up with 
her and pass her without the least trouble." The Hare woke up but the Tortoise was not 
in sight ; and running as fast as he could he found her at her goal fast asleep, while the 
Fox stood waiting to tell the Hare he had lost the race. 

—Aesop's Fables. 

66 



Robin, or Robin Redbreast. 



A. 
B. 

C. 



D. 



Species. 

1. American — Thrush. 

2. European — Warbler. 
Native home — Europe. 
Origin of name — Red breast 

of male. 
Kinds. 

1. Robin redbreast. 

2. Golden robin. 
Migration (Summer bird of 

passage). 

1. Winter home — South. 

3. Summer home — Northern 

states and Canada. 
II. Description. 
A. American. 

1. Size — 10 in. long. 
3. Shape — -Plump. 
3. Color — Black head and 
back, orange breast. ■ 
Family — Perchers. 
1. Broods — 3 per season. 
3. Number of voung — 4 to 6. 
Nest. 
1. Where built (Trees, raft- 
ers, etc.). 
3. Material — Grasses, reeds, 
mud, and hair. 




ROBIN redbre;ast. 



goi,de;n robin. 



European. 



B. 



C. 



1. 6 in. long. 
3. Round, plump. 
3. Olive brown body, red- 
dish-orange breast. 

1. 3 each season. 
3. 5 to 7. 

1. Bushes, ivy wall, and 

vines. 
3. Moss, leaves, dried grass, 

and hair. 



D. 



Eggs. 



1. Number — 4 to 6. 
3. Color — Greenish blue. 
3. Size — ^, in. in diameter. 
E. Food. 

1. Worms. 3. Insects. 

3. Small fruit, especially cherries. 

4. Crumbs. 
III. Characteristics. 

1. Travel in pairs rather than in flocks. 
3. Return to same nest of previous season 

3. Familiar and friendly. 

4. Have pleasant voice and sweet song. 



1. 5 to 7. 
3. White spotted 
dish brown. 
3. Smaller. 



with red- 



The Robin Redbreast. 

Art thou the bird that man loves best, 
The pious bird with the scarlet breast. 

Our little English robin; 
The bird that comes about our doors 

When autumn winds are sobbing? 
Art thou the Peter of Norway boors? 

Their Thomas in Finland, 

And Russia far inland? 
The bird that by some name or other 
All men who know thee call thee brother? 

— Wordsworth. 



67 



The Robin's Return. 



Robin on the tilting bough, 
Redbreast rover, tell me how 
You the weary time have passed 
Since we saw and heard you last. 

"In a green and pleasant land. 
By a summer sea-breeze fanned, 
Orange trees with fruit are bent,- 
There the weary time I've spent; 

Robin, rover, there, no doubt. 
Your best music you poured out ; 
Piping to a stranger's ear. 
You forgot your lovers here. 



"Little lady, on my word, 

You do wrong a true-hearted bird ! 

Not one ditty did I sing, 

'Mong the leaves or on the wing, 

"In the sun or in the rain ; 
Strangers ears would list in vain, 
If I ever tried a note. 
Something rose up in my throat. 

" 'Twas because my heart was true 

To the North and springtime new; 

My mind's eye, a nest could see 

In yon old, forked apple tree !" 

— Edith Thomas. 



The Four Seasons. 



First Pupil: 

Robins in the tree top. 

Blossoms in the grass, 
Green things a-growing, 

Everywhere you pass ; 
Sudden little breezes. 

Showers of silver dew. 
Black bough and bent twig 

Budding out anew ; 
Pine tree and willow tree. 

Fringed elm and larch — 
Don't you think that May time's 

Pleasanter than March? 

Second Pupil: 

Apples in the orchard 

Mellowing one by one; 
Strawberries upturning 

Soft cheeks to the sun; 
Roses faint with sweetness. 

Lilies fair of face, 
Drowsy scents and murmurs 

Hunting every place; 
Lengths of golden sunshine. 

Moonlight bright as day, 
Don't you think that svimmer's 

Pleasanter than May? 



Third Pupil: 

Roger in the corn patch, 

Whistling negro songs ; 
Pussy by the hearthside 

Romping with the tongs; 
Chestnuts in the ashes 

Bursting through the rind ; 
Red leaf and gold leaf 

Rustling down the wind ; 
Mother "doin' peache?" 

All the afternoon — 
Don't you think that autumn's 

Pleasanter than June? 

Fourth Pupil : 

Little fairy snowflakes 

Dancing in the flue ; 
Old Mr. Santa Claus, 

What is keeping you? 
Twilight and firelight, 

Shadows come and go ; 
Merry chime of sleighbells 

Tinkling through the snow; 
Mother knitting stockings, 

(Pussy's got the ball) — 
Don't you think that winter's 

Pleasanter than all ? 

— T. B. Aldrich. 



Questions on the Robin. 

To what continents is the robin native? 3429. 
By what name is it famiharly known ? Why so named ? 
Name some characteristics which make the robin a favorite. 
Note the difference in color between the male and female. 
Name some distinguishing features between the American and the European 
robin. 

When and where do the robins migrate? 
What is meant by the robin being a "percher" ? 



Silkworm. 



I. Family — Bombycidae. 

1. Species (About 400). 

II. Silk Moth. 

1. Description. 

A. Body — Thick and 

hairy. 

B. Length — Mature 

state 1 in. 

C. Legs — Stout. 

D. Wings — Large, 

marked with dark 
lines. 

E. B o d y of female 

larger than male. 

F. Both die after de- 

posit of eggs. 

III. Silkworm. 

1. Eggs (300 to 500 in 

number). 

2. Where placed. 

A. Wild state — Leaves 

of mulberry tree-. 

B. Silk culture — On 

pieces of paper or 
muslin. 

3. Conditions necessary "for 

hatching. 

A. Tempera ture of 

80° F. 

B. Room clean. 

C. Good ventilation. 

4. Caterpillar. 

A. Early appearance — 

8 or 10 days. 

B. Body— Parts. 

a. 13 segments. 

b. 6 anterior or 

legs. 

c. Ten fleshy hind legs. 

d. Large mouth with 

powerful jaws. 

C. Stages of development. 

a. Caterpillar state from 

6 to 8 weeks. 

b. Skin changes four 

times (Casting). 

c. Body assumes an 

ashy color. 

d. Length — 3 in. 

e. Food — Mulberry 

leaves. 

f. Ceases eating fifth 

week. 

g. Spinning of cocoon. 

5. Cocoon development. 

A. Place of attachment. 

a. Wild state — Mulberry 
leaves. 




fore 



SILKWORM. 

1, Male Moth; 2, Female Moth; 3, 3, Silkworms; 4, Chrys- 
alis; 5, Cocoon. 



b. Artificial state — Cells. 

B. How attached — By hind 

legs. 

C. How made — By throw- 

ing silk threads. 

D. Threads. 

a. Glutinous substance. 

b. Secreted by two tu- 

bular glands. Lo- 
cation ( On each 
side body, near 
head, connected 
with spinneret). 

c. Length. 

200 to 300 yards. 

d. Nature. 

Consists of two 
strands. 

E. Time of spinning. 

a. 3 to 5 days. 

F. Preparation for pupa 

stage. 
G. Chrysalis state. 
A. Hatching. 

a. Time required — 3 
69 weeks. 



b. Prevention of hatch- 

ing. 

By placing in hot 

water, or warm 

oven. 

c. Cocoons necessary 

for 1 lb. of raw 
silk— 12. 
IV. Manufacture. 

1. Placing in hot water kills moth 

and softens gum. 

2. Unwinding of cocoon. 

A. Outside cocoon floss silk. 

B. Inside finest silk. 

3. Reeling silk. 

4. Raw silk. 

A. Washing. 

B. Winding on bobbins. 

C. Assortment. 

5. Throwing. 

A. Unwinding from bobbins. 

B. Twisting on machine. 

C. Wound on reel. 

D. Preparing threads for 

spinning. 

a. Singles for plain silk 

and ribbons. 

b. Double twisted in 

making warps 
(Tram silk). 

c. Organzine (Twisted 

like a rope). 

E. Dyeing raw silk. 

F. Waste products (^ of 

cocoon). 

a. Formerly considered 

useless. 

b. Process discovered, 

in 1857, by which 
these products are 
utilized (Spin silk). 

6. Weaving. 

A. Power looms in United 

States and Canada. 

B. Hand looms in Europe 

(Usually). 

C. Hand looms entirely 

(China). 

D. Manufacture of sewing 

silk. 

a. C o n t i n u a t i on of 

throwing. 

b. Made by continua- 

tion of twisting of 
threads. 

c. Process confined to 

America. 



V. History. 

1. Originated in China. 

A. First cocoon unwound, 
2600 B. c. 

2. Introduced into Europe. 

A. Carried by Persian 

monks 530 b. c. 

B. Edict of Nantes. 

3. Introduced into America. 

A. Attempt by James I., into 

Virginia. 

B. Introduced in South Car- 

olina, Florida, Califor- 
nia, and New Jersey, in 
1850. 

VI. Countries. 

1. Raw silk. 

A. China. 

B. Japan. 

C. Italy. 

D. France. 

2. Where manufactured. 

A. France. 

B. United States. 

a. 650 silk factories. 

b. Annual value $115,- 
526,500. 

c. One-third raw silk 

manufactured here. 

3. Germany. 

4. Switzerland. 

VII. Artificial Silk. 

1. Made of cellulose prepared 
from cotton and pulps of 
soft wood. 

A. Cotton carded. 

B. Treated with nitric and 

sulphine acid. 

a. 15 parts nitric acid. 

b. 85 parts sulphine 
acid. 

C. Converted into nitrocel- 

lulose. 

a. Clear blue color. 

D. Pressed and carefully 

washed. 

E. Collodion. 

a. Dissolving in ether 
and alcohol. 

F. Run between steel rollers. 

G. Forced through tubes in- 

to nitric acid. 
H. Fibers reeled. 

I. Dried by warm air. 

J. Washing and drying. 
K. Spun and dried. 



70 




SILKWORMS AND THE SILK INDUSTRY. 



71 



The American Silk Worm. 

The American silkworm is a large moth of a buff color, whose caterpillar feeds upon 
the leaves -of many trees, such as the oak, maple, apple, willow, hickory, and sycamore. 
The cocoon is formed of strong silk, which has a glossy fiber when it is unwound. It is 
generally fastened to a leaf or to several leaves, with which it sometimes falls to the 
ground. A gummy substance cements the fibers together and when dry gives the cocoon 
a chalky appearance. The gummy substance is softened for reeling by soaking in warm 
water. This insect has two generations per year in the Southern States and passes the 
winter in the chrysalis state. 



Questions on Silk and the Silkworm. 

From what country is one-half of the raw silk obtained? 2636. 

Of what material is artificial silk made ? 

How does the price of artificial silk compare with that of real silk? 

Who is credited with unwinding the first silk cocoon 2600 b. c. ? 2635. 

What people carried the eggs of the silkworm in hollow canes from China to 
Constantinople about 530 a. d. ? 

What king first sent silkworm eggs to Virginia and offered rewards for the 
production of raw silk ? 

What is the color of raw silk? 

Tell how to unwind the silk cocoon. What is floss silk ? 

In what country did the manufacture of silk originate? 

What effect did the Edict of Nantes have upon the silk industry of France ? 

From what cities do we obtain most of our imported silk goods ? 

About what proportion of the raw silk produced in the world is handled by 
the mills of the United States? 

About how many species of the silkworm are there ? 

How many eggs does the silk moth produce ? 

How many pounds of cocoons are required to produce a pound of raw silk? 

How many silk factories are there in the United States at the present time 
and what is the value of their annual output ? 

Which is the larger, the male or the female silkworm? 

How do the eggs of the silkworm compare in size Avith the mustard seed? 

How long do they remain in the caterpillar stage and how many times does 
their skin change during this period? 

How many legs has a caterpillar? 

Tell how they spin the silk thread. ^ 

How is the moth killed in the cocoon ? 

How many pounds of raw silk are produced in the world annually? 

What part of the silkworm is used in the manufacture of fish lines? 2637. ' 

Give reasons why silk is more expensive than cotton. 

Name five articles made from silk. 

What temperature is necessary to hatch the silkworm egg and what time re- 
quired ? 

Upon what do the caterpillars feed? 

When do they begin to spin their cocoons ? How long does this take ? 

Which is the better quality, artificial or natural silk? Give reasons. 

72 



spider. 



I. Class — Arachnida. 

An animal (Sometimes called in- 
sect). 

II. Description. 

1. Body — 3 segments. ' 

A. 1. Head; eyes (8). 

2. Chest — Breathes 
through lung sacs. 

B. Abdomen. 

1. Structure. 

a. Tubes. 

b. Fluid. 

c. Thread. 

C. Legs — 8, in i pairs. 

N"ew limbs may grow 
again when others are 
destroyed. 

D. Mandibles. 

1. Hooked. . 

2. Use. 

3. Fluid. 

E. Color — Various (Often 

same as leaves, bark, or 
petals of flowers where 
they occur). 

F. Size — From minute size 

to several inches in di- 
ameter. 

G. Shape — Same at birth as 

when adult. 
Skin changes 6 or 9 
times. 



2. Food. 

A. Kinds. 

1. Flies. 

2. Birds. 

3. Small reptiles. 

Suck juices from 
prey. 

B. How obtained. 

C. Manner of poisoning. 

3. Eggs. 

1. Number (From 50 to 

2,000). ' 

2. Where laid (Silk co- 

coon) . 

3. Hatching. 

4. Webs, or Nests. 

1. Construction. 

2. By which made (Us- 

ually the female). 

3. Kinds. 

4. Use. 

5. Where made. 

a. Plants. 

b. Buildings. 

c. Water. 

d. Under sfround. 



5. Habits. 



1. Fighting. 

2. Hiding. - 

3. Leaping. 

4. Running. 

5. Swimminj 



in. Species. 

1. House. 

2. Garden. 

3. Water. 



4. Trapdoor. 

5. Tropical. 

6. Tarantula. 



Questions on the Spider. 

Name three ways in which spiders differ from insects. 2707. 

Which senses are most highly developed? 

Give the construction of the second segment. 

Compare the male and female in size and strength. 

Describe the web-making process. 

What may be said regarding the parental attitude of spiders? 

What animals are enemies of spiders? 

How great are the poisonous effects of spiders ? 

Where is the home of the tarantula ? 

In what regions are spiders found in greatest number and of largest size? 

Why are the trapdoor spiders so called? 

Describe the home of the water spider. 

How are the young of the scorpion cared for? 2561. 



Squirrel. 



9. 
10. 



I. Class — ^Mammalia. 

1. Order — Rodentia (Gnawing 
animals). 

II. Characteristics. 

1. No canine teeth. 

2. Two powerful incisors. 

3. Molar teeth flat. 

4. Motion of jaw backward and 

forward. 

5. Body slender. 

6. Bright eyes. 

7. Ears small and pointed. 

8. Tail long- and bushy. 
Hind feet have 5 toes. 
Front feet 4 toes and a thumb- 
like projection. 

III. Groups. 

1. Tree Squirrels. 

A. Ruddy-brown color up- 

per parts, 

B. Reddish white below, t 

C. Color varies with season, 

generally grayish in the 
winter. 
Live in trees. 
Food — Nuts, seeds, 
acorns. 
F. Flesh valued as food. 

2. Ground Squirrels. 

A. Species, 
(a) Gray, striped, red. 

B. Home in burrows in 
ground. 

C. Food — Seeds, tender 
shoots of plants, cereals. 

Pest to cornfields in cen- 
tral west. 
Flying Squirrels. 
A. Extension of skin con- 
necting fore and hind 
legs forming a para- 
chute. 



D. 

E. 



D. 



B. Flying motion. 

C. Roam at night and seen 

little in daytime. 

IV. Where Found. 

1. Tree squirrels — In forests of 

North America and most 
other continents. 

2. Ground squirrels — Both timber 

and prairie regions. 

3. Flying squirrels — Western 

Asia, North America, Siberia, 
Eastern Europe. 

V. Use. 

1. Fur. 

2. Food. 

3. Pets. 




tre;e squirre;i,s. 



Questions on the Squirrel. 

What continent has no squirrels? 2719. 

How many toes has a squirrel on its fore feet ? On its hind feet ? 

74 



In what countries are flying squirrels found? 2730. 

Do they roam about in the daytime or at night? 

Why are ground squirrels harmful to farmers? 

In what country do we find the best fur-bearing squirrels ? 

Name three kinds of ground squirrels and describe them. 2719. 

What kind of squirrels produces the best meat ? 

What is the effect of the change of seasons on the color of the squirrels? 

Wliat do the squirrels do in the cold weather of winter ? 

What do they eat? How do they provide food for the winter? 

In what countries are tree squirrels most abundant ? 



The Squirrel. 



• 



In the joy of his nature he frisks with a bound 
To the topmost twigs, and then to the ground; 
Then up again, like a winged thing, 
And from tree to tree with a vaunting spring; 
Then he sits up aloft, and looks waggish and queer, 
As if he would say, "Ay, follow me here!" 
And then he grows pettish, and stamps his foot; 
And then independently cracks his nut. 

— Mary Howitt. 



The Hunted Squirrel. 

Then as a nimble squirrel from the wood 
Ranging the hedges for his filbert food 
Sits pertly on a bough, his brown nuts cracking 
And from the shell the sweet white kernel taking ; 
Till with their crooks and bags a sort of boys 
To share with him come with so great a noise 
^riiat he is forced to leave a nut nigh broke, 
And for his life leap to a neighbor oak, 
Thence to a beech, thence to a row of ashes ; 
Whilst through the quagmires and red water plashes 
The boys run dabbing through thick and thin. 
One tears his hose, another breaks his shin; 
This, torn and tattered, hath with much ado 
Got by the briars ; and that hath lost his shoe ; 
This drops his band ; that headlong falls for haste : 
Another cries behind for being last ; 
With sticks and stones and many a sounding holloa 
The little fool with no small sport they follow, 
Whilst he from tree to tree, from spray 
Gets to the woods and hides him in his dray. 

— Williain Brozvne. 



75 




BLACKBOARD LE;SS0N. 
76 



Tea. 



I. Family — Allied to Camellia. 

II. Species. 

1. Several (Ranging from 4 ft. to 30 ft. 
in height). 
A. Tea shrub or Chinese tea (Most 
important) . 

III. Description. 
1. Shrub. 

A. Height. 

(a) Wild state (20 ft. to 30 ft.). 

(b) Cultivated for commerce (5 

ft. to 6 ft.). 

B. Leaves. 

(a) Length (3 in. to 6 in.). 

(b) Shape (Lanceolate). 

C. Flowers. 

(a) Color (White). 

IV. Propagation. 

1. From seed. 

2. Ready for picking (3 years of age). 

3. Best results secured (8 years to 10 

years of age). 

V. Distribution. 

1. Range (From 39° north, in Japan, to 

regions south of Equator) ; Java, 
Australia, South Africa, Southern 
Brazil. 

2. United States— South of line extend- 

ing from California to South Caro- 
lina. 

VI. Harvesting. 

1. Leaves picked by hand. 

2. First crop gathered in April. 

3. Second crop gathered a month 

later (Most valuable). 
A. Different grades. 

(a) Hyson (Spring 
crop). 

(b) Pounchong 
(Wrapped tea). 

(c) Souchong (Small 
kind). 

4. Process of curing. 

A. Green Tea. 

(a) Made by drying- 

leaves quickly in 
pan immediately 
after picking. 

(b) Rolled on table. 

(c) Dried a second 

time. 

(d) Varieties. 

Hyson. 

Young Hyson. 
Hyson Skin. 
Gun Powder. 

77 




VV^S AND 


FLOWERS OF TEA. 




Imperial. 




Caper. 


B. Black Tea. 


(a) Drying leaves in 




shallow baskets. 


(b) 


Saccharine fermen- 




tation. 


(c) 


Roasted in iron ves- 




sel. 


(d) 


Dried over charcoal 




fire. 


(e) 


Varieties. 




Pekoe. 




Flowery Pekoe. 




Orange Pekoe. 




• Pekoe Souchong. 




Congon. 




Bohea. 




Souchong. 



VII. History. 



Discovered by Chinese in 2737 

B. C. 

Carried to Japan in 13th cen- 
tury. 

Dutch established plantation in 
Java in 1825. 



4. Later established in Ceylon, West Indies, South America, Australia, 
Southern Europe. 
VIII. Constituents. , 

1. Volatile oil, theine, tannin, albuminoids. 

3. Soluble mineral matter (Phosphoric acid and potash). 



Tea in Literature. 

Love and scandal are the best sweeteners of tea. 

—Fielding. 

The gentle fair on nervous tea relies, 

Whilst gay good-nature sparkles in her eyes ; 

An inoffensive scandal fluttering round. 

Too rough to tickle, and too light to wound. 

— Crabhe. 

Tea! thou soft, thou sober sage, and venerable Hquid; — thou female tongue-running, 
smile-soothing, heart-opening, wink-tippling cordial, to whose glorious insipidity I owe the 
happiest moments of my life, let me fall prostrate. 

— Cibber. 



Questions on Tea. 

What is the height of the tea plant? 2829. 
What is the most important species of the tea shrub or tree? 
What is its height in cultivation? 

What is the length of the leaves ? What is the color of the flower ? - 
How is it propagated? 2829. 
How old must it be before the leaves are picked ? 
At what age does the tea plant yield the best? 
What can you say of the tea as to its climatic range ? 
What grain covers a wider scope? 

Why is it not raised in the United States, although the climate is favorable ? 
In what states is the tea plant grown with profit? 
What countries produce the greatest amount of tea ? 
How are the leaves gathered? 
When is the first crop picked? 
How long before the second crop is picked ? 
How many crops are picked in a year? 
Which, crop is the most valuable? 
What is Hyson tea ? When is it picked ? 
Are black arid green tea both secured from the same plant? 
Tell how green tea is made . How black tea is made . 
What are some of the kinds of green tea ? ' 
How is tea adulterated ? 

May all the grades of tea be prepared from the same plant? 
How is tea classified as to its flavor and who are employed for that purpose? 
What is the active principal of tea ? 

To whom do Chinese writers ascribe the discovery of the virtues of tea and 
when did he reign ? 

78 



Woodpecker. 



I. Order — Picariae. 

IT. Species (About 350). 

III. Description. 

1. Bill — Long, straight, and angular for perforating bark of tree. 

2. Tongue. 

A. Long, slender, and armed with barbed, horny point. 

B. Capable of thrusting tongue out and spearing insects. 

C. Covered with sticky, shiny substance. 

3. Body somewhat slender. 

4. Tail quite stiff (Spine enables them to climb). 

5. Skilled in discovering holes of insects in trees. 

6. Tapping. 

7. Plumage. 

A. Beautiful, usually having bright mark of red, yellow, or green at head 
and wings. 

IV. Species. 

1. Ivory billed. 

A. Length (20 in.). 

B. Alar extent (30 in.). 

C. Color — Black and white ; male with bright red crest. 

D. Nest in hollow trees. 

2. Red-headed. 

A. Length (10 in.), 

B. Head— Red. 

C. Found in North America, Atlantic to Rocky Mountains. 

3. California woodpecker. 

A. Food — Acorns. B. Found along the Pacific coast. 

4. Sap sucker. 

5. Species native to Europe. 

A. Great spotted woodpecker. B. Green woodpecker. 

6. Asiatic hornbill. 



The Woodpecker. 

'How does he know where to dig his hole, Away to the pear tree, out of sight, 

The woodpecker there, on the elm-tree pole? with a cheery call, and a jumping flight! 

How does he know what kind of a limb tt u .a ^ ^ ^ 4.-i t, r i ^ u 

rp X J i u -2 He hopped around until he found a stub, 

To use for a drum or to burrow m? uai. , > i i 

How does he find where the young grubs grow— ^h, here s the place to look for a grub ! 

I'd like to know ?" 'Tis moist and dead — rrrrr rub-dub-dub." 

"I see," said the boy. "Just a rap or two. 
Then listen as any bright boy might do. 
You can tell ripe melons and garden stuff 
In the very same way — It's easy enough." 

— William J. Long. 



Questions on the Woodpecker. 

Why is the woodpecker so named? 3179. 

Is it a bird of beautiful plumage? 

To what division of birds does it belong? 298. 

What species of woodpecker is found on the Pacific coast ? 

Where are the nests usually built ? How many eggs are laid ? 

In what way is the horny point of the tongue an advantage? 

Name and describe five species of woodpeckers. 

What causes the woodpecker to make a tapping noise in the forest ? 

What species of woodpecker is found most commonly in North America? 

79 



■-' ^T n^^'i S M'Fl^ 




Happy the man, in busy schemes unskilled. 
Who, living simply, like our sires of old, 

Tills the few acres which our fathers tilled. 
Vexed by no thoughts of usury or gold. 

— Martin. 



THE cultivation of useful plants as a means of supplying the needs and luxu- 
ries of mankind is the oldest and one of the most important occupations. 
Indeed, land is the source of all wealth and its care and cultivation consti- 
tute important enterprises. The field, the garden, and the forest are the three divi- 
sions in which agricultural labor is done, giving rise to the arts of agriculture, 
horticulture, and forestry. Modern farming, as it is managed at present, includes 
two general divisions, those of plant production and of animal raising. 

Agriculture is fundamentally utilitarian, since the products as an aggregate 
supply human wants. On the other hand, horticulture yields a large quantity of 
luxuries, although the raising of vegetables, which is properly a branch of horticul- 
ture, is concerned very largely with supplying materials for the table. Horti- 
culture and forestry, although distinctive arts, become closely related in land- 
scape gardening and arboriculture. 

Although much advancement has been made in modern farming, this enter- 
prise does not represent a radical departure from the best practice of agricultural 
arts and stock raising in the earlier times. However, the principles which underlie 
successful method are better understood at present and the farmer is able to profit 
from the experience of others. The soil is the laboratory of the farmer. He must 
necessarily study the constituents of the soil so he may know how to treat it and 
what classes of plants to cultivate. This has become possible through the greater 
intelligence of the agriculturists and the valuable assistance furnished by the 
government and through agricultural schools and periodicals. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is recommended as a work 
of reference in studying the arts of agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. It 
contains practical suggestions and a wide fund of information on these topics. 
The reader should consult articles under the titles of Agriculture, Agricultural 
Education, Corn, Elevator, Forestry, Irrigation, Milk, Soil, Swine. Turkey, and 
hundreds of others. The titles especially outlined in this book suggest innum- 
erable correlated topics which are of relative importance to the student of agri- 
cultural arts. 



80 



Education in 

I. Agricultural Education. 
1. History. 

A. Dates from antiquity. 

B. Early schools — Studied 

agriculture alone. 

C. Schools. 

a. England — near Cir- 

encester. 

b. Germany — Berlin. 

c. C a n a da — Guelph, 

New Brunswick, 
Quebec, Manitoba, 
etc. 

d. Australia — Rich- 

mond, Ga,tton, 
Dookie. 

e. United States — 

National and State 
(One in each). 

f. Societies. 

1. Farmers' Insti- 
tutes. 



Agriculture. 

2. Farmers' O r - 
ganizations. 

II. Department of Agriculture. 

1. When organized. 

2. Chief officer. 

3. Reports. 

4. Objects. 

5. Literature — Library, periodi- 

cals. Year Book. 

6. Bureaus—Soil, Chemistry, An- 

imal industry. Weather, etc. 

III. Experiment Station. 

1. What is it. 

2. Purposes. 

3. Principal stations — Canada, 

England, United States. 

4. Grants and appropriations. 

5. Administration. 

6. Bulletins. 

7. Means of promoting interest. 



Outline in Agriculture. 



I. Farming. 

1. Location. 

A. As to climatic conditions. 

1. Amount and distribu- 

tion of heat and 
moisture. 

2. Length of season and 

character of same. 

3. Nature of changes — 

Sudden, gradual, etc. 

4. Drainage. 

B. As to character of land, 

1. Highland or lowland. 
• 2. Level or rolling land. 
8. Prairie or timbered 

land. 
4. Fertile or sterile land. 

C. As to nature of the soil. 

1. Origin and formation. 

2. Nature and composi- 

tion. 

3. Kinds, etc. 

D. As to accessibility to mar- 

ket. 
2. Making the farm. 

A. In timbered land. 

B. In prairie land. 



C. Nature and extent of work 

required in each case. 

D. Relative value of the farms. , 

E. Fertilization. 

F. Irrigation. 

3. Divisions of the farm. 

A. Tillable land. 

1. Field, meadow. 

2. Garden, orchard, and 

vineyard. 

B. Pasture land. 

C. Relative proportion of each. 

D. Nature and use of each. 

4. Location of buildings. 

A. The dwelling. 

1. In i-eference to pasture, 
fields, garden, or- 
chard. 

2. 'Accessibility to road. 

B. The barn. 

1. In reference to dwell- 
ing and pasture. 

C. The granary. 

1. In reference to safety 
and accessibility to 
fields. 



81 



D. 



E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 



The wood and coal house. 
1. In reference to dwell- 
ing. 

Chicken house. 

Meat house. 

Milk house (dairy). 

Tool and implement house 
(Here draw a plan of 
farm, locating the pasture, 
fields, meadow, garden, 
orchard, vineyard, and the 
different buildings). 
A model farm. 



Field lesson — Visit an im- 




plement house. Get 


pic 




tures of the different 


imple 




ments. 




Animals used in farming. 




Beasts of burden. 




A. 


The ox. 




B. 


The horse. 




C. 


The mule. 




Fow 


Is. 




A. 


Chicken. 




B. 


Duck. 




C. 


Turkey. 




D. 


Guinea. 




E. 


Goose. 





Used for food and clothing. 




CUTTING GRASS 



5. Products of the farmi. 

A. Cereals — Corn, wheat, oats, 

rye, flax. 

B. Grasses — Timothy, alfalfa, 

clover, etc. 

C. Fruits — Apples, peaches, 

pears, plums, apricots, etc. 

D. Garden vegetables — Beans, 

peas, potatoes, onions, to- 
matoes, cucumbers. 

E. Products of the vineyard — 

Grapes, berries, etc. 

F. Planting — Cultivating, har- 

vesting, and marketing 
each. 

6. Implements used in farming. 

A. The plow, breaking plow, 

cultivating plow — Use of. 

B. The harrow, the roller — 

Use of each. 

C. The planter, the drill — Use 

of each. 

D. The mower, the reaper — 

Use of each. 

E. The thrasher, the stacker — 

Use of each. 

F. The wagon — Use. 

G. The hoe and rake — Use of 

each. 



HARVESTING GRAIN. 

A. The cow. 

B. The sheep. 

C. The hog. 

D. Goats. 

8. Kinds of farms. 

A. Grain farms. 

B. Grass farms. 

C. Fruit farms. 

D. Dairy farms. 

E. Stock farms. 

F. Garden farms. 

G. Poultry farms. 

II. Stock Raising. 
1. Stock farm. 

A. Special features. 

1. Water. 

2. Grass. 

B. Difference and similarity to 

other farms. 

1. Character of the land. 

2. Divisions of farm. 

C. Extent and size. 

1. Depends upon number 

and kind of stock. 

2. Depends upon nature 

of soil and kind of 
land. 

D. Division and arrangement 

1. Pastures. 



82 



2. Meadows. 

3. Fields. 

4. Feed lots. 

5. Location of each di- 

vision with reference 
to the other. 
E. Caring for the farm. 

1. Kind of work. 

2. Extent of work. 
2. Kinds of stock. 

A. Horses. 

1. As to use — Draft, road- 

ster, race, saddle, 
buggy and ponies. 

2. As to breeds — Common 

and fine breeds. 

B. Mules. 

1. As to use — Draft, road- 

ster, and saddle. 

2. As to breeds — Common 

and fine. 

C. Cattle. 

1. As to use — Draft, beef, 

and milkers. 

2. As to breeds — Common 

and fine. 




GANG PIvOW. 

D. Hogs. 

1. As to use — Meat, feed- 

ers, and stockers. 

2. As to breeds — Common 

and fine. 

E. Sheep. 

1. As to use — Clothing 

and food — mutton. 

2. As to breeds — Common 

and fine. 

F. Goats. 

1. As to use — Food and 

clothing. 

2. As to breeds — Common 

and fine. 

G. Common fowls. 

1. Chicken. 

2. Geese. 

3. Turkeys. 



HI. 



4. Ducks. 

5. Guineas. 

6. Kinds and use of each. 

3. Caring for the stock. 

A. Pasturing. 

B. Making provisions for 

watering — Ponds, creeks, 
wells. 

C. Feeding — Kinds of food 

for each. 

D. Housing or sheltering. 

4. Marketing the stock. 

A. When — The season of the 

year. 

B. How done. 

C. Shipping. 
Farming Sections. 

A. 1. Make a study of your State 
or Province. 

2. United States. 

3. Canada, Mexico, and Central 

America. 




HAY RAKE. 

4. Draw maps and locate on them 

the farming sections. 

5. Tell what is grown in these sec- 

tions. 

6. Name and locate the great mar- 

kets of each section. 

7. Amount of production. 

B. 1. Make a study of South America 
in a similar manner (Use 
outline under A) . 
2. Compare farming belts of South 
America with those of North 
America as to extent and 
amount of production. 
C 1. Study Europe by outline under 
A (4, 5, 6 and 7). 
2. Compare with North America 
and South America as to the 
extent of farming belts and 
the amount of production. 

D. 1. Study Asia, Africa, and Aus- 

traHa in a similar manner. 
2. Compare with other continents 
as to extent and production. 

E. 1. Study the islands of the sea — 

Japan, Philippines, Cuba. 



83 



IV. 
A. 



B. 1 



V. 



Stock-raising Sections. 

1. United States and Canada. 

2. Other countries of North Amer- 

ica. 

3. Location and extent. 

4. Kind and number of stock. 

5. Stock markets — L o c a t e and 

name them and give to what 
extent engaged in buying and 
selling and shipping stock. 

6. Different stock markets. 

1. Cattle market. 

2. Hog market. 

3. Sheep and goat market. 

4. Horse and mule market. 

5. Poultry market. 
Make a study of South America, 

Europe, Asia, Africa, and 
Australia, in a similar manner. 
Compare with North America as 
the number and kind of stock 
bought, sold, and shipped. 
Type Studies. 
1. Vegetable origin. 

A. Wheat, corn, rice, flax, cot- 
ton. 



2. 



B. Apple, peach, pear, plum, 

apricot, banana, orange, 
lemon. 

C. Beans, peas, potatoes, to- 

matoes, cabbage. 

2. A. Preparation of ground. 

B. Planting. 

C. Cultivating. 

D. Harvesting. 

E. Marketing. 

F. Amount of production. 

3. Animal origin. 

A. Cattle. 

B. Hogs. 

C. Sheep. 

D. Goats. 

E. Horses and mules. 

F. Silk. 

4. A. Raising. 

B. Feeding and housing. 

C. Preparing for market. 

D. Marketing. 

E. Shipping. 

F. Use. 

G. Amount. 



The final thought : The world is a great farm. 



Subjects for Study. 



Adulteration. 


Dairying. 


Labor. 


Agrarian Law. 


Dehorning. 


Land. 


Agricultural Education. 


Dog. 


Lumber. 


Agriculture. 


Earthworm. 


Milk. 


Animal. 


Education. 


Oats. 


Animal Intelligence. 


Egg. 


Parasites. 


Architecture. 


Ensilage. 


Polder. ' 


Atmosphere. 


Farmers' Institute. 


Political Economy. 


Barometer. 


Fence. 


Potato. 


Bean. 


Fertilizers. 


Poultry. 


Bee. 


Floriculture, 


Rent, 


Beer. 


Food. 


Sewage. 


Beet. 


Flour. 


Sheep. 


Birds. 


Forest. 


Soil. 


Bread. 


Germination. 


Sugar. 


Breeding. 


Grafting. 


Swine, 


Brick. 


Grape. 


Tariff. 


Butter. 


Grass. 


Tax. 


Cattle. 


Guano, 


Technical Education 


Climate. 


Harvesting Machinery. 


Telephone. 


Cheese. 


Horse. 


Tobacco. 


Clover. 


Horticulture. 


Weeds. 


Commerce. 


Insects. 


Wire. 


Cream. 


Insurance. 


Wool. 



84 



TOBACCO. 



t44^ 000, ooo 
I <:?.l/i mi n id. 
I /3.0, j^s.ooo 

^sS>j S,6'0, COO 
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H AY 

/ I O WCJ. 

6'.QS'S,OOoTons. 

ill^ew York _ 

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1^,/sSfOoo- „ 

4. QW\ o. 

i^, 0^5, ooo ., 

5. Pennsylvdnia. 

6. Missouri. 

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POTATOES 
/ NewVofk. 

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Mich/gcin. 

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^93 3,SOjOOO. » 
Wisconsin. 

3,^j73.^jOO0 „ 
Pennsv/«^c/n/cf. 
2.3,790, ooo ,. 

Mlnneso-td. 
l^,ii-OOjOOO ., 



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/ Illinois. 

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\o Wei. 

2.^,8^00,000. .. 

Missouf j. 

^/S,S*40,ooo, „ 
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,, /^6,S£10.000... 

NeDlr»clSKc«. 

l<^%o (90,000. .. 
Kansas. 



£1, 
6. 



RYE. 

/ Pennsvlvcihici. 

=2. Michiqcin. 

s,s%%ooo .. 
a- W/scon^fn. 

11,72.7,000. .. 
14. Newrork. 

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^, a ^0,000. .. 
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RICE 


/. 


Louisidnci. 

I^,^7S,000. Bu. 




i^. 


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c^. 


A^kcinscjs. 


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South Cd/-olmd. 




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VVHEAT 

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/ Ninnesofd. 
j4-,omooa Bu. j^. 

^. North 'Ddkofd. 1 
90,76%poo. ™ 

lowd. 

NeibrdsKd. 

1^,060,000 




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fll/nois. 
JS^.,0/o4,000. Bu. 

Iowa. 

J/k/00,00O. ,, 

Miwesotci. 
^Mm,ooo. ., 
Wisconsin. 
,, 7ff,mmo „ 
NeioPdSKd. 
^M Ms; 000. 
Ohio. 



/. Minnesota 
S/,^00,000. Bu. 

S Cdlifoi'iQid. 

yS/,^70,000 : 

3. Wisco Pis/n. 
£14, aj+si 000. .• 

4 WorffiDdkotd. 
£10,7^7,000 .. 

<^. lovvd. 

/O^S^'?o,ooo. .. 



i New York. 
If 5 IS,, 000. Bu. 

<^. F^^?«sylv/d»^ia. 
J. M/ch;qdn. 

^. Maine. 

(s^H-.OOO. ., 
v5. WestVirqinid. 

4(79,^000. .. 
(o. V/rgihid. 

%7P,000. .. 







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/ NormMofc^. 

/4,&2^0.00. Bu 
£1. bOMf-liIldkofd. 

rjf, /VJmnGsota 

4. Kbhsds. 

3^<r,ooo. 

^^4,000. 

5. Wisconsin. 

£190,000 



, WH EAT 

(WINTER) 

/. Kcinsds. 
^. NelDrdskd 

I4S,6-^0,000 " 

^3. Indid hcj. 
. ..S.S,rJA,ooo. . 

4^ IITino/s. 

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6. Missouri. 

£iS'»S(i>£i,ooo .. 




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85 



Questions on Agriculture. 

How does agriculture rank among the world's occupations? 

When and where was the first college of agriculture establishea ;' Who was 
its leader? 37. , 

When was the Department of Agriculture organized? What is the "Year 
Book?" 40. 

Name the chief benefits of Agricultural Experiment Stations. How are 
they managed? 

Give a list of the principal courses pursued in agricultural schools. Locate 
the leading schools of this kind in Canada. 

What are the chief farm implements used? Describe some of the latest 
inventions in farm machinery. 

State the benefits of scientific farming on small farms. Compare the present 
size and number of farms with those of earlier days. 

Give some strong points in regard to selecting a location for a profitable 
farm home. 

State some means of fertilizing soil. Explain what is meant by "rotation 
of crops" and "specializing" in farming. 

Name the pests and dangers to which the following are subject and give 
remedy for each: wheat, cotton, potatoes, squashes, apples, cabbage, gooseber- 
ries and cherries. 

Why is seed selecting so important? How has the government aided the 
farmer in this respect? 

What is floriculture? Grafting? Pruning? Rust? Smut? Nicotine? 
Vegetable? Blight? 

By naming a dozen or more staple articles of food endeavor to show the 
extent of our dependence upon the farmer. 

What are the chief animals used in farming? Name ten useful animal 
products. 

Locate the best farming regions of Canada. Name some of its leading exports. 

For what crops are the following noted : Kansas, Minnesota, Ontario, Wash- 
ington, British Columbia, Georgia, and Colorado? 

Who was Burbank and what special improvements has he made in plant life? 
What flower is named after him? 406. 



Irrigation. 



L Object— To produce or increase fertility. 
H. History — Ancient and modern. 
HL Irrigation contrasted with dry farming. 
IV. Necessary Dependence. 

1. Soil. 

2. Crops grown. 

3. Amount of evaporation. 

4. Season and distribution of rainfall. 
V. Methods and Means. 

1. Sources of supply. 

A. Rivers. D. Artesian wells. 

B. Lakes. E. Freshets. 

C. Springs. F. Melting snows. 

2. How reserved — Dams and reservoirs. 

3. Means of distribution — Canals and ditches. 

4. Forced into channels as needed by pumps, windmills, or machinery. 

5. Inundation system used in the South for rice fields and cranberries. 

86 



VI. Where Carried On. 

1. Egypt. 

A. When. 

B. Source of water supply. 

C. Extent of arid region. 

D. Method of irrigating. 

E. Benefit — N umber of 

crops, etc. 

F. Assuan dam. 

2. Asia — Persia, India, China, 

etc. 

3. E u r o p e — 1 1 a 1 y, Spain, 

France, etc 

4. America — New Mexico, Ari- 

zona, Alberta, California, 
Utah, Oregon, Georgia, etc. 

VII. Statistics. 

1. Extent of arid regions. 

2. Amount of reclaimed lands. 

3. Value of irrigated lands. 

VIII. Reclamation Act. 

1. When passed. 

2. Purpose. 

3. Benefits derived. 

4. Truckee-Carson system. 

A. States affected. 

B. Canals. 

C. Extent of distribution. 



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TRUCKEE-CARSON IRRIGATION SYSTEM IN NEVADA. 



Questions on Irrigation. 

Define irrigation. 1413. 

What are its chief purposes? 

Upon what does the necessity of irrigation depend? 

What two things greatly determine the value of irrigated land? 

Name some eastern countries where irrigation is carried on most extensively. 

In what sections of North America are traces of irrigation by prehistoric 
peoples ? 

How do present methods compare with the ancient? State some changes. 

Wliere are the greatest arid regions of the United States ? Which State has 
the largest amount of reclaimed land ? 1414. 

How has irrigation aided in populating the western states ? 

Where is the largest irrigated area in the world ? 

Describe the Assuan dam of Egypt. 

What was the Reclamation Act? What land has been especially benefited 
thereby ? 

Describe the Truckee-Carson system. 

State some of the chief benefits irrigation has produced in America. 



Blessings of the Rain. 

When the blacken'ng clouds in sprinkling showers 
Distill, from the high summits down the rain ^ 
Runs trickling, with the fertile moisture cheer'd, 
The orchards smile, joyous the farmers see 
Their thriving plants, and bless the heavenly dew. 

—Philip. 

87 



Cotton. 



I. Genus — Gossypium. 

II. Description, 

1. Shrublike. 

2. Lobed leaves. 

3. Flowers, yellowish (like hollyhock). 

A. Celled capsule which bursts open when ripe (Bell). 

B. Black seeds covered with cellular fibers. 

4. Leaves — Dark green with blue veins. 

III. Species (Several). 

1. Short fiber, or upland. 

2. Long fiber, or Sea Island (Southern States). 

IV. Cultivation. 

1. Planted in fields like corn. 

2. Preparation of ground (Plowed in spring). 

3. Drilling of seeds (Rows 3 ft. apart). 

4. Plants appear above ground in 8 days. 

5. Plants cultivated 3 times. 

6. Seeds ripened in 70 days. 

V. Gathering or Harvesting. 

1. Bursting of pods or bolls. 

2. Picked "by hand. All not ripe at once. 

3. Sent to gin house (Separated from seed). 

4. Pressed in bales of 500 lbs. 

5. Bales bound ready for shipment. 

VI. Products. 

1. Raw material made into cotton cloth. 

2. Cotton stalks — manufacture of pulp. 

3. Cotton-seed oil. 

A. Food. 

B. Lard and butter. 

C. Food for animals. ■ 

VII. Where Grown. 

1. Native to tropical regions. 

A. Cultivated between latitudes 35 degrees north and 35 degrees south. 

2. Southern States. 

A. Texas (Leading). 

B. Mississippi. 

C. Georgia. 

D. Alabama, North Carolina, Louisiana, Arkansas. 

3. Egypt. 

4. Russia. 

5. China, Brazil, Mexico, West Indies, Asiatic islands of the Pacific Ocean. 

VIII. History. 

1. Writings of Herodotus. 

2. Mentioned by Aristobulus (Alexander's general). 

3. Arabians made cotton cloth in 627 a. d. 

4. Introduced into Italy 14th century. 

5. Mentioned in English history, 1436. 

6. Made into cloth in 1736 by Louis Paul. 

7. Native of West Indies and South America. 

8. Cotton seed brought to Georgia, 1786. 

9. First cotton mill (Beverly, Mass.). 
10. Invention of cotton gin^ 1793. 

IX. Annual Output. 

1. United States (13,500,000 bales) 66^ per cent, of world's crop. 

2. Worid's output (19,942,500 bales) 1909. 




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BIvACKBOARD LESSON. 
89 



X. Enemies. 

1. Boll moth. 

A. Deposits eggs under leaves. 

2. Boll worm (Larva of boll moth). 

3. Boll weevil. 

A. Beetle with elongated head. 

4. Red bug. 

A. Suctorial. 



The Cotton Plant. 

Sing, Oh ! sing for the Cotton Plant ! When you've worn it long and well, 
Bravely may it grow, Will it worthless be? 

Bearing in its seeded pod No, a book made from the dress 
Cotton white as snow. You yet, in time, may see. 

Spin the Cotton into thread ; Sort the rags and grind the pulp ; 

Weave it in the loom ; Weave the paper fair ; 

Wear it now, dear little child, Now it only waits for words 

In your happy home. To be printed there. 

May ten thousand" Cotton Plants 

Spring up, fresh and fair, 
That words of wisdom and of love, 

O'er all the world shall bear. 

— Selected. 

Questions on Cotton. 

The cotton belt covers how wide a belt north and south of the Equator? 

Name two of the principal varieties of cotton. 687. 

Which is the better quality? 

What can you say about the manufacture of cotton goods by the Arabians 
in early times;? 

When was the culture of cotton commenced in Italy? 

When was the first cotton mill in America erected? Where? 

When was cotton seed first brought into Georgia? 

When was the manufacture of cotton into cloth by means of machinery 
begun ? 

How many million bales are produced annually in the United States? 

How is cotton baled and what is the average weight per bale? 

How is cotton cultivated? 

When is the ground plowed? How are the seeds planted? 

How many times must it be cultivated and weeded? 

Should it be cultivated after the plants liower? 

About how many days after maturity should cotton be gathered and why ? 

Why must cotton be picked by hand? 

Wliat effect did the invention of the cotton gin have upon the production of 
cotton ? 

Name six of the leading cotton states. 

Tell who invented the spinning gin and the power loom. 

To what countries is the greater part of our raw cotton exported? 

What use is made of the cotton stalks? 

From what part of the cotton is cotton oil manufactured? 

What is cotton-seed cake and for what is it used? 

Name four articles made from cotton. 

Where does the cotton boll moth lay its eggs? 

Where does the boll weevel lay its eggs? 

In what way does the red bug or cotton stainer injure the cotton? 

Which is the more valuable, cotton crops or the wheat crops of the United 
States ? 

90 



Corn. 



II. 



Ill 



History. 

1. Where first known. 

2. Native to what country. 

3. By whom introduced into 

Europe. 
Kinds. 

1. Dent. 

2. Sweet corn. 

3. Popcorn. 

4. FHnt. 
Description. 



Names. 
Family. 
Stem. 

A. Structure. 

B. Height. 

C. Covering. 
Leaves and silks. 
Roots. 

Ears. 

A. Developed 

leaf sheaf. 

B. Kernels— 18 



within 



to 



IV. 




m a row. 
C. Color — White, yel- 
low, red, or mixed. 
Testing. 

1. Select fully ripened ears. 

2. Well-developed ears. 

3. Full, straight rows of 

kernels. 

4. Plump, even grains. 

5. Plant in box in suitable dent corn. 

soil. 

6. Watch development of growth, stand, etc. 

V. Planting. 

1. Soil — Well-drained, rich, sandy loam. 

2. Preparation of ground — Plowed, disced, and harrowed. 

3. Time of planting — May 1 to 20. 

Old rule — "Maize should not be planted until the white oak leaves were 
of the size of a squirrel's ear." 

4. How planted. 

A. With corn planter. 

B. 3 or 4 stalks to a hill. 

C. Hills 3% ft. apart each way. 

VI. Cultivation. 

1. Purpose — To sterilize soil ; to promote growth ; check weed crop. 

2. Machinery used — Cultivator and plow. 

3. Process begins — June and lasts about six weeks until plants are too large 

to escape injury by machines. 

4. Cultivated each time at right angles to preceding direction. 

VII. Enemies. 

1. Larva beetles. 3. Cutworm: 5. Weevil. 

2. Root worm. 4, Chinch bug. 

91 



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VIII. Harvesting. 
1. Sweet corn. 

Use — Canning, drying, roasting ears, etc. 

Gathered when grains begin to glaze. 
3. Dent corn. 

Gathered for fodder when grains glaze. 

Also see Ensilage. 

Ripened corn gathered in October and November by husking, then crib- 
bing. 
3. Machines used — Corn harvester, shredder, roller, etc. 

IX. Uses. 

1. Food. 

A. Animals. 

a. Whole corn, ground, cracked, fodder, etc. 

B. Mankind. 

a. Meal, hominy, roasting ears, canned, etc. 

b. Manufactured products. 

Starch. Candy, 

Liquors. Oil. 

Glucose. Breakfast foods. 

2. Cobs. B. General. 

A. Fuel. - C. Board of Trade. 

B. Pipes. XI. Corn Lands. 

C. Syrup. 1. United States. 

3. Husks. A. Annual production. 

A. Mattresses. B. Comparative value. 

■ B. Mats. C. Rank of A/Iississippi valley 

C. Paper. as corn-producing region. 

D. Stock. D. Leading corn-producing 

X. Marketing. • states — Iowa, Illinois, 

1. Cribbed. Kansas, etc. 

3. Shelled. 2. Canada. 

3. Hauled to elevators. A. Ontario. 

4. Sent to mills. Annual crop. _ 

5. Markets. 3. Agricultural countries of Tem- 

A. Local. perate zones. 

Questions on Corn. 

What is the origin of the name Indian corn? 
Describe fully the corn plant. 678. 
Tell why and how seed corn should be tested. 

Where are the male and the female organs of the corn flower found? 
When should it be planted? Give the rule of early days. 
Name the diflerent machines used in caring for a crop of corn. 
What are the enemies of corn? 
Why was popcorn so named? 
Name ten products obtained from corn. 
To what regions is flint corn especially adapted, and why? 
Tell how Indians planted corn and how they prepared it for food. 
Flow does corn compare as a food with other grains? 
.What nutritive properties are found in corn? 

What are the prospects at present in the corn market? What is the price 
per bushel? 

To what animals is corn fed chiefly ? What is the fattening quality ? 

93 



Corn in Literature. 



Nor forgotten nor neglected 

Was the grave where lay Mondamin 

Sleeping in the rain and sunshine. 

* * * * 

Day by day did Hiawatha 
Go to wait and watch beside it ; 
Till at length a small green feather 
From the earth shot slowly upward, 
Then another and another, 
And before the winter ended 
Stood the maize in all its beauty 
With its shining robes about it 
And its long, soft yellow tresses. 



And still later, when the autumn 
Changed the long green leaves to yellow, 
And the soft and juicy kernels 
Grew like wampum hard and yellow, 
Then the ripened ears he gathered, 
Stripped the withered husks from off them, 
As he once had stripped the wrestler, 
Gave the first Feast of Mondamin, 
And made known unto the people 
This new gift of the Great Spirit. 

— Longfellow. 



Corn is King. 



Upon a hundred thousand plains 
Its banners rustle in the breeze. 

O'er all the nation's wide domains. 
From coast to coast betwixt the seas. 

Far back through history's shadowy page 
It shines a power of boundless good. 

The people's prop from age to age, 
The one unfailing wealth of food. 



How straight and tall and stately stand 
Its serried stalks upright and strong ! 

How nobly are its outlines planned ! 
What grace and charm to it belong ! 

And let the states their garlands bring, 
Each its own lovely blossom-sign ; 

But leading all, let Maize be king, 
Holding its place by right divine. 

— Celia Thaxter. 



The Corn Song. 



Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard ! 

Heap high the golden corn ! 
No richer gift has autumn poured 

From out her lavish horn ! 

Let other lands, exulting, glean 

The apple from the pine, 
The orange from its glossy green, 

The cluster from the vine. 

We better love the hardy gift 

Our rugged vales bestow. 
To cheer us when the storm shall drift 

Our harvest fields with snow. 

Through vales of grass and meads of flowers 
Our plows their furrows made. 

While on the hills the sun and showers 
Of changeful April played. 

We dropped the seed o'er hill and plain 

Beneath the sun of May, 
And frightened from our sprouting grain 

The robber crow away. 



All through the long, bright days of June 
Its leaves grew green and fair, 

And waved in hot midsummer noon 
Its soft and yellow hair. 

And now with autumn's moonlit eves, 

Its harvest time has come. 
We pluck away its frosted leaves, 

And bear the treasure home. 

There, when the snows about us drift. 

And winter winds are cold, 
Fair hands the broken grain shall sift 

And knead its meal of gold. 

Let earth withhold her goodly root, 

Let mildew blight the rye. 
Give to the worm the orchard's fruit, 

The wheatfield to the fly. 

But let the good old crop adorn 

The hills our fathers trod ; 
Still let us, for his golden corn, 

Send up our thanks to God. 

— Whittier. 



94 



Grass. 



Creeping, creeping, here and there. 
In fields and meadows, everywhere, 
Coming up to greet the Spring, 
And hear the robin red-breast sing; 
Creeping under children's feet, 
Glancing at the violets sweet, 
Growing into tiny bowers 
For the dainty meadow flowers — 
We are small, but think a minute 
Of a world with no grass in it. 

— Selected. 



I. Species— 4,500. 




Ontario. 


11. 


Classes. 




Manitoba. 




1. Natural. 




Quebec. 




2. Artificial. 


d. 


Acreage. 


III. 


Propagation. 


e. 


Annual production. 




1. From seed and roots. 


f. 


Value. 




2. Sowed broadcast. 


B. Harvesting. 




3. Annual. 


a. 


Number of crops (Two and 




4. Perennial. 




sometimes more per 


IV. 


Natural Grasses. 




season). 




1. Series A. 


b. 


Time. 




A. Maize or Indian corn. 




First crop — Early sum- 




B. Millet (650 species). 




mer. 




C. Rice. 




Second crop (Aftermath) 




D. Lemon grass. 




— Few weeks later. 




E. Sorghum. 


c. 


Manner — Machinery. 




F. Mesquite, etc. 




Cut. 




2. Series B. 




Cured. 




A. Timothy (750 species). 




Raked. 




B. Oats, wheat, rye, etc. 




Stacked. ' 




C. Blue grass. 




Stored, in barns. 




D. Bamboo, redtop. 




Baled for transportation. 




E. Canary grass. 


C. Preservation. 




F. Buffalo grass, etc. 


a. 


Curing. 


V. 


Artificial Grasses. 




Cut when in blossom. 




A. Clover. 




Exposed to air. 




B. Alfalfa. 




Dried in sun. 




C. Cowpea, etc. 


b. 


Ensilage. 


VI, 


. For What Cultivated. 




Cut just before ripe. 




1. Hay. 




Stored in mass in deep 




2. Pasturage. 




trenches. 




3. Seed. 




Placed in mow or silo. 




4. Soiling. 


D. Kinds. 


VII. Cultivation of Grasses. 


1. 


Timothy. 




A. Distribution. 




a. Origin of name. 




a. All agricultural lands. 




b. Native to Europe. 




b. United States. 




c. When sown. 




Iowa (First). 




d. With what grains 




New York. 




sown. 




Kansas. 




e. When mature for cut- 




Pennsylvania. 




ting. 




Missouri. 




f. Stems. 




Illinois. 




g. Form. 




Nebraska. 




h. Height. 




C. Canada. 




i. Quality. 



95 



j. Quantity. 

k. Where grown. 

2. Clover, Trefoil (Not a true 

grass). 

a. Genus — Trifolium. 

b. Family. 

c. Species — 150. 

d. Kinds. 

Dutch. 

French. 

Red. 

White. 

Alsike, or Swedish. 

e. Uses. 

f. Enemies. 

3. Alfalfa, or Lucerne (Not 

a true grass). 

a. Name — Spanish origin. 

b. Description. 

Stem. 
Leaves. 
Flowers. 
Height. 

c. Where grown. 

1. America. 

Nebraska. 
Kansas. 
Texas. 
Colorado. 
Western Canada. 

2. Europe. 

Countries along 
the Mediterran- 
ean. 

d. Characteristics. 

Deep rooted. 

Adapted to dry lo- 
calities. 

Nourishing. 
• Healthful. 

Yields 3 to 8 tons per 
acre annually. 

Several crops per 
year. 

4. Redtop. 

a. When sown. 

b. With what other seed 

sown. 

c. Kind of soil required. 

d. Chief advantage over 

other grasses. 

e. Uses. 

5. Blue Grass. 

a. Permanent. 

b. Hardy. 

C. Length of growing sea- 
son. 




6. 



RED CLOVER. 



d. Where grown. 

Eurasia. 
America. 

1. Mississippi 

Valley. 

2. Kentucky (Blue 

Grass State). 

e. Use. 

Pasturage. 
Lawn. 
Hay. 
Bamboo. 

A. Description. 

1. Stem. 

3. Rootstalk. 

3. Height. 

4. Soil required. 

B. Propagation, 

C. Uses. 

D. Products. 

E. Where grown. 

1. Tropical regions. 
America. 
Africa. 
Asia. 



96 



Questions on Grass. 

What plants are included with natural grasses ? 1182. 

What is the extent of growth in a season ? Name some species. 

State some uses. Name some of the products obtained. 

Describe the harvesting of grasses to make hay. 

How may unripe crops be cared for? What is known of the economic value 
of ensilage? 92-i. 

Which tw.o states rank first in the production of hay ? 

In which provinces of Canada is the yield greatest? 

Upon what does the annual output of hay depend? 

At what stage may the best quality of hay be secured ? 

Explain what is meant by rozucn. 

For what soil is redtop best suited? State one of its valuable properties. 

Study the articles on corn, wheat, and barley and write an essay on Cereals. 

Name some species of clover. What can you tell about alsike? 

How may poor and exhausted lands be redeemed ? State three uses for clover. 

After whom did timothy get its name? By what other name is it known in 
England ? 

What proportionate value has timothy hay in the United States? 

How is alfalfa particularly adapted to dry regions ? How long has it been 
cultivated in Europe? 

Why is blue grass especially valuable for pasturage ? Wliich is the Blue Grass 
State ? 

How are lentils prepared for food? 1570. 

In which countries is bamboo grown most extensively? State some of its 
uses to the natives. For what are bamboos used in America ? 



Song of the Clover. 

I wonder what the clover thinks, 
Intimate friend of Bob-o'-links, 
Lover of daisies, slim and white, 
Waltzer with buttercups at night; 
Keeper of inn for traveling bees, 
Serving to them wine dregs and lees, 
Left by the Roj^al Humming Birds, 
Who sip and pla}^ with fine-spun words ; 
Comrade of winds, beloved by sun. 
Kissed by the dew-drops, one by one ; 
Prophet of Good Luck mystery, 
By sign of four, which few may see ; 
Sweet by the roadsides, sweet by rills. 
Sweet in the meadows, sweet on hills. 
Sweet in its white, sweet in its red. 
Oh, half its sweetness cannot be said ; 
Oh! who knows what the clover thinks? 
No one! unless the bob-o'-links. 

— Saxe Holm. 



Showers and sunshine bring, 
Slowly, the deepening verdure o'er the earth ; 
To put their foliage out, the woods are slack. 
And one by one the singing-birds come back. 

— Bryant. 

97 



Sugar. 

I. Definition. 

(A sweet crystalline compound). 
11. Composition. 

1. Elements : a. Oxygen ; b. Car- 

bon; c. Hydrogen. 

2. Proportions of each. 

III. History. 

1. Where first made (India and 

Arabia). 

2. Introduced into Europe (By 

the Moors into Spain). 

3. Introduced into the West In- 

dies (By Spanish Colonists). 

4. Introduced for culture in 

Louisiana (1751). 

IV. From What Obtained. 3. 

1. Sugar Cane. 

A. Nativity of plant (Cen- 

tral Asia). 

B. How developed. 

C. Description. 

a. Leaves (3 ft. to 5 ft. 

long) . 

b. Stems. 

c. Height (7 ft. to 12 

ft). 
\ d. Pith (Contains 

juice). 

D. Conditions for growth. 

a. Lowlands (Most 

suitable). 

b. A rich alluvial soil. 

c. Abundant moisture. 

E. How propagated. 

a. By cuttings of top 
joints. 

F. How planted. 

a. In rows (5 ft. to 7 
ft. apart). 

2. Cane Sugar. 

A. Processes in the field. 

a. Topping. 

b. Stemming. 

c. Cutting. 4. 

d. Grinding at the mill 

(Pressing out the 
juice and straining 

e. Boiling in tanks 

(Until it becomes 
granular) . 

f. Separated by ma- 

chinery from the 
syrup. 

98 



g. Raw sugar, or brown 
sugar. 
1. Refining process. 

2. Dissolving i n 

hot water. 

3. Adding lime and 

sulphuric acid. 

4. Passing through 

bags of cloth 
and charcoal. 

5. Second boiling. 
h. Granulated sugar 

(How made). 
i. Loaf sugar ( How. 
made). 
B. Cane mills (How con- 
structed). 
Beet Sugar. 

A. From what plant derived 

(Sugar beet). 

B. Where grown. 

a. Germany ( P r o - 

duces the most). 

b. Austria - Hungary, 

Russia, France, 
Canada, Belgium, 
Holland, United 
States. 

C. History of cultivation. 

a. In France by Napo- 

leon (In 1810). 

b. Discoveries of Count 

von Arnim. 

c. United States, ex- 

periments of 1890. 

D. Best zone in United 

States, 

a. Location. 

b. Length. 

c. Width. 

d. Government experi- 

ments. 

e. United States pro- 

duction (For 1909, 
250,000 tons). 
Sugar Maple. 

A. Where grown (Indiana, 

Ohio, New York, Penn- 
sylvania, West Virginia, 
New England States, 
New Brunswick, On- 
tario). 

B. Season. 

C. Sap, how obtained. 

D. Maple sugar, how made. 

E. Flavoring and uses. 




BLACKBOARD LESSON. 



99 



5. Jaggery. e. Preparing plant for 

A. From what obtained. ■ molasses. 

C." P?^duction. (^) 'Twing and 

6. Sorghum. , stnppmg. 

A. Nativity of plant (b) Grinding and 

(Chma). pressing out 

B. Introduced nito France ^ • • r 

(From China). '^'^ J"^^^ °^ 

C. Introduced into America (1856). the stalks. 

D. Description. (c) Boiling to mo- 

J- Seeds. 1^33^5^ 

b. Height. 

c. Planting. f- Yield of molasses per 

d. Uses. acre (75 gal. to 

(a) Fodder (In 150 gal.). 

colder and ^ ^ , , . - 

dry climates) ^- I^-esemblance to broom 

(b) Molasses. corn and sugar cane. 

7. Glucose (Sometimes called grape or starch sugar). 

A. From what made (Chiefly corn and potatoes). 

B. Sweetening power (^ of that of cane sugar). 

C. Uses. 

a. Table syrups and confectionery. 

b. Artificial honey. 

c. For brewing liquors. 

d. Food for bees. 

e. Making bleached grape sugar. 

f. For canning fruits. 

g. Making jellies. 

h. Making condensed milk. 

D. Weight per bushel of corn (30 lbs. to 45 lbs. glucose). 

E. Processes of manufacture. 

a. Soaking in water. 

b. Temperature necessary (80°F.). 

c. Injecting sulphur fumes. 

d. Time required. 

e. Grinding, crushing, stirring, separating. 

f. Extracting the oil. 

(a) Amount (50%). 

(b) Uses of the oil. 

1. Making salads. 

3. Mixing paints and making toilet soaps. 

3. Residue feed to stock. 

g. Removing the gluten. 

(a) Process (Filtering and drying). 

(b) Use (Food for stock). 

. (c) Price per ton (About $18.00 per ton), 
h. Processes after the oil and gluten have been removed. 

(a) Residue mixed with water. 

(b) Filtered several times. 

(c) Converted into syrup by sulphuric acid and muriatic acid. 

1. Pressure (25 lbs. to 40 lbs.). 

2. Starch is steamed (About one hour). 

3. Converts the starch into glucose, or grape sugar. 

4. Solidity (35% solid matter). 

5. Color (Yellowish brown). 

6. Clarifying. 7. Evaporation. 

100 



F. Amount of corn made into glucose yearly in United States (About 
48,000,000 bu.). 

8. Grape Sugar. 

A. From what obtained (Juices of fruits). 

a. Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits. 

b. Quantity (From 1 to 15 per cent). 

c. How made. 

9. Milk Sugar. 

10. Other Materials. 

Such as barley, honey, and various allied substances. 
V. Consumption of Sugar. 

1. For the world in 1909 (14,500,000 tons). 

2. Beet sugar consumed in 1909 (7,190,000 tons). 

3. United States consumption (2,525,000 tons). 

4. United States domestic sugar consumed at home (20%). 

5. Consumption per capita of leading nations (annually). 

a. England (91.6 lbs.). e. Sweden (38 lbs.). 

b. United States (65.2 lbs.). f. France (36 lbs.). 

c. Switzerland (60.3 lbs.). g. Germany (34 lbs.). 

d. Canada (54 lbs.). h. Russia (14 lbs.). 
VI. Refineries. 

1. Location in United States 

(Largest are at New York, New Orleans, Philadelphia, San Francisco), 
VI L Production of Sugar. 

1. Amount. 

Beet Sugar. 

a. Germany (1,975,000 tons). 

b. Austria-Hungary (1,200,000 tons). 

c. France (850,000 tons). 

d. United States (1909, 250,000 tons). 

2. Cane Sugar (1909, U. S., 250,000 tons). 



Questions on Sugar. 

In what country was sugar first made? 2769. 

Of what country is sugar cane a native? 

Is sugar cane found in the wild state? 

What proportion of sug-ar is made from the sugar cane? 

What is raw sugar? What is brown sugar? 

How is raw sugar refined and made white? 

How is granulated sugar made? 

What are the differences in the processes of making loaf and lump sugar ? 

Sugar beet juice yields about how many per cent, of sugar? 

What countries produce the most cane sugar? Beet sugar? 2770. 

From what plants do we obtain grape sugar? 

How is glucose or starch sugar made ? 

What is jaggary sugar? From what plant obtained? 

What is the average number of pounds used by each person in the United 
States per year ? 

What nation uses the most sugar according to its population? 

Is glucose a sugar and from what plants is it chiefly made? 1153. 

What can you say about the sweetness of glucose compared to that of cane 
sugar ? 

Give the processes of making glucose. 

How many pounds of glucose can be made from a bushel of corn? 

Name seven articles in which glucose is used in manufacturing. 

What is the color of the table beets ? Of the sugar beets ? 262. 

To whom is credit given for the development of the sugar-beet industry? 

101 



What can you say of the sugar-beet zone in the United States, as to extent 
of length and width ? 

What provinces of Canada are raising the sugar beet successfully ? 
What State could produce enough sugar beets to supply the entire United 
States with sugar? 

How many pounds of maple sap will a hard maple tree produce ? How many 
pounds of sugar will it make? 1702. 

What can you say of the value of maple tree blossoms to bees ? 

How is maple sugar made? What states produce the most maple sugar? 

Of what elements is sugar composed? 2770. 

Do Indian corn and sorghum produce sugar? 

From what is much of our candy made? 2770, 1153. 



The Maple Tree. 

"There's a maple bud, redder today ! 
It will almost flower tomorrow ; 
I could vouch 'twas only yesterday 
In a sheet of snow and ice it lay, 
With fierce winds blowing in every way. 
— Selected. 




SUGAR MAPLE. 
1. Flower; 2, Seed. 



The Song of the Sap. 

The woods are still sleeping, 
But grass is a peeping 

From under the snow. 
The swallows are coming. 
The bees are a humming. 

The sap has begun to flow ! 

The buds that were hidden 
In brown coats are bidden 

To break and let the world know. 
The Ice-king is quaking, 
The spring-time is waking, 

For sap has begun to flow! 



Under the greenwood tree 
Who loves to lie with me, 
And tune his merry note 
Unto the sweet bird's throat, 
Come hither, come hither, come hither! 
Here shall we see 
No enemy 
But winter and rough weather. 



Memory Gems. 

Who doth ambition shun 
And loves to live i' the sun, 
Seeking the food he eats 
And pleased with what he gets, 
Come hither, come hither, come hither ! 
Here shall he see 
No enemy 
But winter and rough weather. 

— Shakespeare. 



If Mother Nature patches the leaves of trees and vines, 
I'm sure she does her darning with the needles of the pines ; 
They are so long and slender and somewhere in full view, 
She has her threads of cobwebs and her thimble made of dew. 

~W. H. Payne. 

102 



Poultry. 



I. Class — Domestic Fowls. 

II. History. 

1. Origin. 2. Antiquity. 

III. Poultry Raising. 

1. By whom engaged in. 

2. Where carried on. 

3. In what countries. 

A. United States and Canada. 

a. Annual poultry pro- 

duction. 

b. Annual egg production. 

c. Number of eggs used 

daily. 

B. France. 

C. Germany. 

IV. Propagation. 

1. From eggs. 

2. Incubation. 

A. Natural — Sitting hens. 

B. Artificial — Incubator ma- 

chines. 

C. Time required — From 2 to 

4 weeks. 

V. Care. 

1. Spacious yards. 

2. Proper food. 

3. Good breeding, 

4. Houses. 

A. Clean. 

B. Warm. 

C. Well lighted (Sunlight). 

D. Ventilated. 
VI. Food. 

1. Grains (Corn, wheat, rye). 

2. Lime. 

3. Gravel. 4. Insects. 
VII. Kinds. 

1. Chiqkens. 

A. Class — Domestic fowls. 

a. American — General 

breeding purposes. 

b. Asiatic — Meat or table use. 

c. Mediterranean — Egg- 

making. 

d. Polish — Ornamental. 

B. Species. 

a. Leghorn. 

b. Spanish. 

c. Hamburg. 

d. Cochin. 

e. Brahma. 

f. Bantam. 

g. Plymouth Rock, 
h. Langshan. 

i. Buff Orpington. 
j. Wyandotte. 

103 



2. Turkey. 

A. History. 

B. Species. 

a. Common. 

1. Distribution. 

2. Description. 

a. Head. 

b. Neck. 

c. Weight. 

d. Plumage. 

e. Food. 

f. Nests, 
g-- Eggs. 

b. Flonduras. 

1. Native to what 

countries. 

2. Size. 

3. Plumage. 

4. Neck. 




BUFF ORPINGTON HEN. 

3. Duck. 

A. Family — Web-footed birds. 

B. Class — Swfinimers. 

a. Tame. 

b. Wild. 

1. Sea ducks. 
3. True ducks. 

C. Kinds. 

a. Mallard. 

b. Wood duck. 

c. Scaup. 

d. Pintail. 

e. Musk duck. 

f. Pekin. 

g. Canvasback. 

h. Aylesbury, etc. 

D. Nest. 



E. Eggs. 

a. Number — 6 to 12. 

b. Not as desirable as 

hens' eggs for food. 

F. Use. 

a. Food. 

b. Feathers. 
4. Goose. 

A. Description. 

a. Origin. 

b. Swim- 

mer 
(Duck 
f am - 
ily). 

c. Size. 

d. Color. 

e. Body. 

f. Migra- 

tion. 

g. L o n - 

gevity. 1. SNOW GOOSE. 

B. Uses. 

a. Food. 

b. Feath- 

ers. 

c. Quills. 

d. Eggs. 

e. Oil. 



Characteristics. 

a. Shape of bill. 

b. Awkward waddling 

movement in walk- 
ing. 

c. Brisk flight. 

d. Excellent swimmer. 




2. POMERANIAN GOOSE. 3. TOUI<OUSE GOOSE. 

5. Other Species. 

A. Peacock, or Peafowl. 

B. Pigeon. 

C. Swan. 

D. Guinea fowl. 



Questions on Poultry. 

Explain how poultry should be cared for. 

What advantages result from the use of incubators? 

What kinds of poultry are the most prolific layers? Which are best for 
food? 

Which country ranks first in the poultry industry? 

How many eggs are used daily in the United States alone? 3297. 

How many species of chickens can you name? Which class is best adapted 
for egg-making? 

Which is the smallest species of chickens ? 

What is the male goose called? Give a distinguishing feature between wild 
species of geese and the domestic breeds. 

How are turkey eggs incubated? How should young turkeys be cared for? 

Mention several uses of geese. 

What is the sound made by ducks called? Why are they web-footed? 

For what is the peafowl especially noted? How are guineas helpful to 
poultry raising? 

How many weeks are required to incubate the eggs of hens? How many 
to incubate those of ducks and geese? 

104 



Wheat. 



I. Grain Belts 



Location 



I 



Give limit by latitude in Northern Hemisphere. 
Same in Southern Hemisphere. 



Physical Features 



f Surface. 
J Drainage. 
'i Climate. 
L Soil. 



Occupation 



Nationalities 



II. How Cultivated 



III. Harvesting 



IV. Threshing 



V. Milling 



VI. Use 



VII. 



Agriculture. 
Stock Raising. 

Compare in appearance, customs, 
ernment, religion. 
r. _ i When— How. 

Preparation of Ground -| Implements used. 

( The old — The improved 

{The old way. 
The new way. 
Implements used. 

( Appearance while growing 
A Wheat Field < Appearance when ripe. 
( Visit a wheat field. 



manners, gov- 



Color. 

Size of stock. 
Height of shock. 
Heads and grain. 



Time 



How 



When to begin. 

How long to continue. 

The old way f Reaping Hook. 



The new way 
Implements used 



Scythe. 



How 



Cradle. 
Reaper. 
Self-binder. 
Header. 
Shocking and stacking — When and how done. 

' When. 

< Old way. 
} New way. 
Implements used (Visit an implement house). 
Storing the wheat — Bins, elevators, etc. (Here describe an 
dinary bin and a large elevator). 

' By wagon and capacity. 

T3 -1 J i • { Number of cars. 
< By railroad trams. | Capacity. 

By steamboats \ ^^^' 

Bins. 

Elevators. 

Machinery. 

Processes. 

Old way. 

New way. 
Grades of flour (Processes of separating and refining). 

Stacking and packing, selling and shipping. A visit to a mill 
to be made a careful study. Capacity of mill as to storage and for 
doing work. Number of barrels flour per day. Kinds of wheat. 
Quantity of wheat. Where it comes from. Kind and grade of 
flour. Amount used for home consumption. Amount exported, 
etc. When exported. 



Transportation 



Storage i 
Cleaning j 
Grinding ] 



Capacity. 



Bread 



Pastry 



Light bread. 
Biscuit. 

Light rolls, etc. 
(Visit to a bakery). 
Pies. 

Cakes, etc. 
I Other uses. 
I Food for animals. 
[^ Its value as a food product. 
Great Wheat Centers— Where— Why. 
Export Trade— Where— How much. 
Imported Trade— Where— How much. 
^ 105 



I. Forest Belts 



Forestry and Lumbering. 

Forestry is the enterprise of cultivating and managing growing timber. In 
a wider sense it embraces horticulture, which is the art of producmg plants that 
possess value for the agreeable properties of their products. While horticulture 
is concerned particularly in laying out and taking care of gardens and orchards, 
it frequently merges into special branches of forestry, such as the cultivation of 
nut-bearing trees. Consult the articles on Forest, Forestry, Horticulture, 
Grafting, Greenhouse, Landscape Gardening, Floriculture. 

r Locate, by latitude, all countries you study. 
I Give surface, drainage, climate, Soil and occupations 
I of the people. 

^ Use— To modify climate, to furnish fuel, to provide 
shelter, to provide building material, etc. 
Question :— Is it right to destroy the Forest Regions ? 
[~Why? 

( Time. 
Logging •< Extent. 
( Manner. 
Camp life of the loggers, etc. 
Cutting, loading, transportation. 
Means of transportation. 
Milling: 

Location of handling the logs — The sawmill. 
Manner and process of handling and sawing the logs. 
Taking care of the lumber and preparation for ship- 
ment. 
Visit a sawmill, if possible. 
Lumber Yards: 

Process of handling and caring for the lumber (Visit 
a lumber yard and find out where the lumber 
comes from). 
(^ Kinds shipped, etc. 



II. How Obtained. . -{ 



III. Kinds ^ 



' Hard Lumber : Name and describe different trees 
from which hard lumber is obtained. 
Locate regions in which hard wood is most usually 
found. 

. Soft Lumber (Same as in hard lumber). 

f Building Purposes — Houses, barns, bridges, fences, etc. 
I Kinds used — Hard or soft? Why? 
Furniture : 

IV. Use ^ Kinds — Hard or soft (Visit a furniture store). 

j Implements : 

Kinds — Hard or soft (Visit an implement house). 
[ Why? 

V. Industry 5 Lumber Centers: Where? Why? 

( Lumber as an export. As an import. 

f The Forest Hymn. — Bryant. 

j The Lumberman. — Whittier. 
^j-j J J Planting the Apple Tree. — Bryant. 

VI. literature ^ Woodman, Spare that Tree.— Morris. 

Building of the Ship. — Longfellow. 

L The Ship Builders. — Whittier, etc. 

106 



VII. Some Important 
Trees 



' Apple. 
Apricot. 
Ash. 

Basswood. 
Birch. 
Buckeye. 
Butternut. 
Catalpa. 
Cedar. 
Chestnut. 
Elm. 
Hickory. 



Lemon. 

Linden. 

Maple. 

Oak. 

Orange. 

Palm. 

Pine. 

Plum. 

Redwood. 

Sycamore. 

Walnut. 

Willow. 



VIII. Related Prod- 
ucts 



r Turpentine, tar, rosin. 

Rubber, quinine. 
J Maple sugar, wood alcohol. 

Fruit, foliage. 

Nuts, nut oil. 
_^ Flowers, perfumes, medicines. 



The groves were God's first temples. Ere man learned 

To hew the shaft, and lay the architrave, 

And spread the roof above them — ere he framed 

The lofty vault, to gather and roll back 

The sound of anthems ; in the darkling wood, 

Amidst the cool and silence, he knelt down, 

And offered to the Mightiest solemn thanks 

And supplication. 

— Bryant. 




Questions on Forestry. 



SEQUOIA TREES 



Define root, trunk, limb, bough, bud, bark, sap, leaf, and heartwood. 

Give five uses of forests. Which of these are the most important? 

By what are forests destroyed? What is their worst enemy? 

Where are the best preserved and the most valuable forests to be found? 

What is the extent of the forest reserves in Canada? 

State the aim and benefits of the Bureau of Forestry. 1033. 

How has the government aided in promoting interest in forestry? 

Give a list of fruit trees in your vicinity. 

Name some trees from which lumber is made. What is hard-wood lumber? 

Where are the forest regions of Canada? 

Name some lumber from which furniture is made. 

From which trees are the following products obtained: tar, rubber, quinine, 
nut oil, chocolate, and wood alcohol? 

Relate some historical facts in connection with the oak and the elm. 

Mention some favorite poems about trees. 

What are the largest trees and where are they grown? 2589. 

What permanent benefits are derived from the observance of Arbor Day? 

In which country are the most dense forests found at present? 

Give the origin of the following names : bottle tree, traveler's tree, breadfruit 
tree, and redwood. 

What do you know of the forests in Alaska, the Philippines, Africa, and Nor- 
way? 

What can you say of the evergreen trees and the Douglass spruce of Canada? 

107 










evergre;i;n trees. 



108 



Oak. 



I. Genus — Cupuli ferae (Bearing a little cup) 
II. Home. 

1. Temperate Zone. 

2. All continents. 

3. North America — Chiefly. 

III. Classification. 

1. Deciduous. 

2. Evergreen. 

Evergreen oak of California. 
Live oak of Southern United 
States. 

IV. Description. 

1. Size. 

2. Shape. 

3. Leaves. 

4. Flowers. 

5. Roots. 

6. Wood, bark. 

7. Fruit. 

8. Soil required. 
V. Species — 300 or more. 

1. Cork oak — Brown in Medi- 

terranean countries. 

2. Turkey oak — Bears sweet and 

edible acorns. 

3. White oak — T h r i v e s from ■ 

Canada to MiCxico; valu- 
able for its hard wood. 

4. Others. 



VI. 




OAK le;aves and acorns. 



2. 



Bur. 
Red. 
Black. 
Cork. 
Gall. 
Live. 
Barbary. 
Swamp. 
Scrub. 
Pin. 

Kermes. 
Chinquapin. 
Uses. 
1. Wood. 

Furniture. 

Shipbuilding. 

Vehicles. 

Mechanical appliances. 

Construction work. 



Bark. 
Medicine. 
Tanning. 
Sort of fustian cloth (Inner 

bark) . 
Cork. 

3. Fruit — Acorns. 

Food for cattle, swine, etc. 
Some edible for man. 
Sweetmeats. 

4. Gallnuts. 

Medicine. 
Ink. 
Dyes. 
VII. Characteristics. 

1. Majesty. 

2. Longevity. 

3. Strength. 

4. Durability. 

5. Historical. 

King Oak of England. 
Charter Oak of United 
States. 



109 



1 he Oak. 

Sing fiT llic o;iK lii'f, (lie inoiiarcli of llic wood, 

SJliK lor lln- o;ik lice, lii;il kI'owcIIi j'.ircii .iinl !',oo(l ! 

'I'Iml growiMli hio.'id .'iiul hiiuii-liiiiK, vvilliiii llio loicst sliiidi'; 

That Ki'owflli now. ;iiid slid sli:dl k"'"vv wlicii we ;ire lowl.v laid. 

Tlic o.di lice wa;; an acorn oiicc, and KII upon llic caitli; 
And ;;iin and ;,Iiowci nolMMsllcd it, UIkI H'flVC llic o.ik I rcc liiilli; 
I'or cciitinics ktovvs llic oak Irco, nor does ils vcidinc lail, 
Its heart i.H lilcc Ihc iron wood, its bark Uki; phiilcd mail. 

-Sflfrtcd. 



Wootlmiiii, Sparc 1 ha( Tree. 



VVoodm.'ui. spnro thai Ircr! 

Touch not a siii|-'lc lionMli I 
In \onlli it i.hcllcicil nic, 

And I'll luohcl il now 
'Twas niv I'.illu'r';; hand 

Thai placed il ncai his col ; 
Thifijl'c. woodman. Id il sland, 

Thv .iv sli.ill h.iini il nol I 

That old l.iinili.ii lice, 

VVhotU' f'.l'" V -ind icnown 
Arc si)road IKun sea to sou. 

And wotddst ihoii ticw it downi 
Woodman, I'orhcar Ihy stroki'I 

(.'nl not its cartli hound tics ; 
Oh. Sparc that ago*! oak 

Now li>wcrinv', lo the skies! 



When hnl ;in idle hoy, 

I: soiif-dil il'- Kralclnl shade ; 
In :ill their KiishinK joy 

Here loo my sisters pla\ cd. 
My mother kissed me heic; 

My father pressed my hand ; 
Forgive this foolish tear, 

llnl let the old oak stand, 

,My hearlstriuKS round thee eling, 

Close as thy bark, old friend ! 
Here shall the wild birds sing. 

And still thy branelios bend. 
Old tree, the storm still brave! 

And, woodman, leave the si^ot ; 
While I've a haiul lo save, 

Thy ax shall harm it not. 



OuestioiiwS oil the Oak. 

I low iiiaiw ,s|H\-ios id" oak ran you iiauu- wliieli i;ro\v in yoiii' part of the 
eouutrv :' 

What do you kiunv oi tho aoo oi oak trocs? XM)!!, 

What aiv oak galls atul for what ato they valuablo? 

Where is the cork oak grown? How is iho cmk ohtaiiunl? 

Doscribo the fniit t>f ihc oak troo atul tell for what it i,s tisoil. 

Name sojuo usos for the wchhI of the o.ik tree. 

Sttlte SOUK- eli.iraoleiistios of oak liee.'^. 

What iiilorostiit!.; historical inoiiletits are assoeiatoi! with oak trees? 

Wh.ii is the sij;nilu'auoe oi the oak U\if? 

W'hy has the o.\k been ealleil " Monareli of the woods?" 

WHiat special vaiiety o{ o:\k is orowii in ralifornia? 

MeiiuM-i:-e the poem ]]\uufithin. Sf^arr That Trr,'. 

Where i.s the live oak fouiul? Peserihe the everoroeti oak. 

W'hv i,s the hark of the i\ik \ahi.ihle in tauniiiii'? 



,110 



^Sf^mfv^^'^W 



-*^< 



« 









i Horticulture. \ 

I. DfJ'Inition: TTcjilicnltiirc is a bnmcli f)f n^'ricnllnrc. Tt is 

the art of cullivating flowers, fruits, and vct,a-tablcs. 

These three departments are known respectively as 

floriculture, poniolo^^y, and fjicriculturf. 
If, Divisions. 

I. I'Kjriculture. 

Vj. I'(;uiolo^^y. 

;>. Olcricullurc. 

'1. Subdivisions. 

A. Amateur — Personal ideals. 
V>. Commercial — Comjnercial d(iii;uids. 
II. Essential Ficatukk.s. 

1 . r;h;irac(er of .soil. 

A. j<>uit trees — Rich, dark io.-un. 

li. Vcj^etablcs and caily ( roi)-, S;uidy loam. 

2. 1 )rainaf,a; — .Systematic. 

A. Effective cultivatifjii. 

B. Lessen injurious freezinj^. 

3. Slope of surface. 

A. Facinj^ sun — Warm, regions. 

W. Away from sun — Northern latitudes. 
Choice selection of species of plants. 
Fertilization and cidtivatif>n. 

A. Suitable fertilizers. 

I>. 'riiorouj^(h tilling. 

C. Destruction of weeds, ins(;cts, etc. 
.Structtjkks, 

1. Ilorhouses. 
Vj. Cireenhouses. 

I'KOI'AOATION. 

1. I'ollen fertilizing^. 

2. Grafting. 

COfJNTKIF.S. 

1. United States — Ear^^est f;iUput. 
A. AjJi^les — Eeadinj,'- crfjp. 
V>. Annual yield, 

C. California — First in j^roduction of citrus fruits. 
Annual shipment. 

D. Florida — Second in citrus fruit. 
F. Peaches, pears, tomatoes, bananas. 

%. Canada. 

A, Number of species. 
Pj, Quantity of fruit. 
C. Exports. 



4, 



'.). r'it.s. 

4. Nurseries. 

?,. liuddinj^. 

4. Seed. 




V<J. 




Ill 



The Seven Ages of a Tree. 

A very practical way of naming and distinguishing trees is as follows: 

1. Young trees which have not reached a height of three feet are seedlings. They 
are called seedlings in spite of the fact that any tree, of whatever age, if it grew from a 
seed, is called a seedHng tree. 

2. Trees from three to ten feet in height are small saplings. 

3. Trees from ten feet in height until they reach a diameter of four inches are called 
large saplings. 

4. Trees with a diameter ranging from four to eight inches are called small poles. 

5. When the diameter is from eight to twelve inches, the trees are known as large 
poles. 

6. Trees that have a diameter ranging from one to two feet are called standards. 

7. All trees over two feet in diameter are known as veterans. 

It is important to remember that all these diameters are measured breast high, or at 
the height of a man's chest, about four feet from the ground. In forestry this is,^ roughly 
speaking, the general custom. — Gifford Pinchot. 



The Fruit Tree. 

The Tree's early leaf-buds were bursting their brown, 
"Shall I take them away?" said the Frost, sweeping down, 

"No, leave them alone 

Till the blossoms have grown," 
Prayed the Tree, while he trembled from rootlet to crown. 

The Tree bore his blossoms, and all the birds sung; _ 
"Shall I take them away?" said the Wind as he swung. 

"No, leave them alone 

Till the berries have grown," 
Said the Tree, while his leaflets quivering hung. 

The Tree bore his fruit in the mid-summer glow : 
Said the girl, "May I gather thy berries now?" 

"Yes, all you can see ; 

Take them, all are for thee," 
Said the Tree, while he bent down his laden boughs low. 

— Bjornstjerne Biornson. 



Questions on Horticulture. 

What is horticulture? Name its chief divisions. 1335. 
What are the essential features to be observed? 
Explain the effect of systematic drainage upon the plants. 
What benefits are derived from guarding the sloping vi^hen planting? 
Why is a slope from the sun preferred in a cold climate? 
Name three kinds of grafting. Explain the process of budding. 
What is a nursery and where are nurseries maintained? 
How has floriculture been greatly facilitated within recent years ? 
What is the leading fruit crop in the United States? 
Where are the leading vineyards of North America? Of Europe? 
What is the annual yield of fruit in California? In Florida? 
In the exportation of what fruits has Canada made special progress ? 
Write a complete list of the trees and shrubs that should be grown in a first- 
class orchard in this vicinity. 

112 




Course of Study in 
Agriculture. 





Objects to Be Obtained. 

1. To stimulate a general interest in agriculture. 

2. To emphasize the importance of associating school work with the practical 
duties of the farm. 

3. To stimulate interest in successful business methods, thereby 
inducing the stu- 
dent to avoid fail- 
ure in life by teach- 
ing him to wori< 
for wholesome re 
suits. 

4. To indued 
the student to be- 
c o m e methodical 
in acquiring infor- 
mation for himself, 
teaching him to be 
industrious and 
energetic in 
searching for rea- 
sons and in study- 
ing the plants by which the life in the country is beautified. 

5. To instill a love for the soil, for the care of animals, and for the occupa- 
tion of farming. 

6. To impress upon the mind of youth the importance of agriculture and 
the advantages enjoyed by those who live upon the farm. 

Successful work in teaching the elements of agriculture depends to a large 
e'xtent upon the teacher. It requires not only tact and enthusiasm, but to these 
must be added interest and industry in searching for the objects and information 
which are particularly fitted for the individual student. The aim should be to 
make the instruction a means of connecting the school work, with the practical 
side of the business engaged in by the farmer. To do this successfully, the teacher 
must correlate history, literature, and other branches with the topics taught. In- 
cidentally it is well to point out the many , advantages enjoyed at present by the 
farmer, who has come to be interested in good roads, telephones, rural free 
delivery, automobiles, and other conveniences of a progressive age. 

Experiments in the treatment of seeds and plants should be features of the 
exercises from time to time. These experiments should include both oral and 

113 



TYPICAL FARM HOME IN THE [SOUTH. 



Heat 



- Somr I 



rate! 



zJFre 67,11 



i.ero 



THERMOMETER. 



written work. Information upon the different topics 
will be found under appropriate titles in " The New 
Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia," hence this work 
should be consulted in regard to the topics as they 
come in the lessons from time to time. The best 
composition and other written work prepared dur- 
ing the year should be preserved. 

First Month. 

Prepare a sectional map of your school district, 
showing the leading physical features, such as creeks, 
elevations, and valleys. Indicate on the map the land 
which is best fitted for cultivation, for pasturage, 
and for meadows. Reasons should be stated why 
land is particularly fitted for one or more of these 
purposes. 

Obtain several kinds of soil for examination, 
such as may be found in different places near the 
school house. Explain how soil came to be formed. 
Notice what kind of a subsoil is found in the vicinity. 
Study different localities in the neighborhood and 
obtain soil in which clay, sand, and gravel predomi- 
nate. Endeavor to make it plain that plants must 
have a suitable soil as well as moisture and warmth 
in order to thrive and yield seed or fodder. 

Study the relative interest taken by farmers in 
the neighborhood in different classes of crops. Make 
a list of the principal products, such as hay, corn, 
wheat, oats, and potatoes. Study the results of 
planting in rich loam and in a very sandy soil, mak- 
ing it an object to learn what plants may be grown 
to the best advantage in the locality. 

Take a spade and dig in the ground to see how 
deep the soil is in different places. Make an exami- 
nation of several places, first on an elevated point 
and next in a valley. Demonstrate that the rains 
wash much of the fertility from the slopes into the 
low land, where the richest soil is found. Notice 
the darker color of the soil- in the valley, showing 
that it contains a considerable portion of alluvial 
matter. 

The question naturally suggests itself, whether 
soil always maintains its fertility. In this connec- 
tion may be shown the advantages of rotating crops 
and the benefits which result from the use of ferti- 
lizers. The same crops cannot be grown on the 
same ground from year to year, but in some soils it 
is possible to maintain fertility for many years by 
rotating the crops. In other soils it must be main- 
tained by manures and still in others by commercial 
fertilizers. Explain the value of clover and other 
deeply rooted plants to stimulate fertility of the soil. 

Have the pupils prepare a list of the leading 
farm crops grown in the vicinity. Study the lists 

114 



and select the eight leading crops for discussion in class. Endeavor to learn 
the uses, either locally or after transportation, of these crops. Fruits and vege- 
tables grown in the vicinity should be studied in a similar manner. 

A collection of the grains and seeds produced in the vicinity should be pre- 
served with care. Each collection should be placed in an envelope or a paste- 
board box, then labeled with the name of the collector and the name of the seeds, 
after which they should be placed where, they can be secured for planting in the 
spring. 

Record of Weather and Rainfall. 

Weather. Rule a blank book so as to have a full page as a record sheet 
for each school day of the year. The temperature is to be recorded in this 
record three times each day, at 9 a. m., at noon, and at 4 p. m. In the same 
record are to be recorded the directions of the wind, whether it is cloudy, and 
the amount of rain or snow. The record is to be kept by one of the pupils, who 
is to have an alternate, and the latter is to be in charge the second month. No 
one is to have charge of the record more than a month at a time. In this way 
all the older pupils will become familiar with the plan. The following is sug- 
gested as a suitable ruling of the 

Weather Record: 



Date 


Temperature 


Clouds 


Rain or Snow 


Direction of Wind 


Sept. 


9 
a. m. 

50 
65 
60 


Noon 


4 
p. m. 


Mean 


9 
a. m. 

C 
C 


Noon 


4 
p. m. 


9 

a. m. 


Noon 


4 
p. m. 


9 
a. m. 


Noon 


4 
p m. 


4 
5 
6 


65 
80 
78 


60 

75 
72 


58.3 
73.3 
70.0 


C 


c 


R 


R 


R 


N. 

E. 

N. W. 


N. E. 
W. 

N. W. 


E. 

W. 

N. W. 



Rainfall. Have the tinner make a simple rain gauge of two parts, one large 
and funnel-shaped to catch the rain and the other small and sufficiently deep to 
measure it. The former should have an exposure, or diameter, three times greater 
than the latter. This is desirable for the reason that many rainfalls are so slight 
that they cannot be measured in the same pan in which the water falls. 

The rule for measuring the water should be finely graduated so as to indicate 
small quantities. Only one-ninth of the measurement is to be counted, as the 
square of the diameter of the receiving vessel is nine times greater than the 
measuring vessel. Snowfalls must be melted and measured as rain. The rain 
gauge should be set in the open, where gusts of wind will not drive the falling 
drops into it or away from it, owing to the proximity of trees or buildings. It 
should be held firmly in position by stakes and the receiving vessel should be set 
so all the water will flow into the one below. 

Questions : — Explain the meaning of soil and of subsoil. What in meant by 
"rotation of crops?" Mention three cereals and five vegetables grown in the 
neighborhood. Why does the soil lose part of its fertility by constant cultivation 
unless fertilizers are used? Where is the richest soil, on the hill-tops, on the 
slopes, or in the valleys? Draw a map of a section of land in the neighborhood, 
showing the farms and the names of those who reside on them. 

115 



Second Month. 

Make a study of the insects that are found in the neighborhood and de- 
termine which are helpful and which are detrimental to the farmer. It is well 
to prepare for this work by collecting specimens as they are obtainable throughout 
the growing season. Have the pupils search in literature for statements regarding 
the more common insects. 

Take up the study of the best known weeds and their habits of growth. 
Make a collection of their seeds and parts of the plants. These should be pre- 
served in the same way as the seeds mentioned in the outline for the first month. 
Prepare a list of the weeds that spread only by seeds, that spread chiefly by 
growth from the roots, and that spread both by seeds and growth from the roots. 
Which of these are most obnoxious? Should the weeds growing on highways 
be destroyed before the seed ripens? 

Cut several apples in halves from the blossom end to the stem. Select 
apples of different kinds for this purpose. Speak of the varieties, in what respects 
they differ from each other, and the purposes for which they are best adapted. 
Have each pupil make a drawing of at least one piece, requiring that the parts 
on the cut side be shown as clearly as possible. In future lessons extend this 
work until the students are able to draw both entire apples and parts cut in 
different sizes. 







^^ ^"tew*^ ^^'^ "^ ■^^'^ ^^■ 



UNIMPROVED HOG. 



CHESTER WHITE FEMALE. 



Prepare a complete list of the domestic animals reared in the vicinity. To 
this list add a number of useful animals common to Northern Canada, Arabia, 
and Egypt. Which animals are raised only to work, which for their work and 
meat, and which solely for products after they have been slaughtered? Make a 
study of the products obtained from animals reared in the neighborhood. 

Study some cereal, such as com or wheat. When, how, and for what pur- 
pose is it planted? How many crops may be grown in succession on a given 
piece of land? Speak of the best way to rotate the crops. Give conversational 
lessons in how to cultivate and harvest corn. Besides being a staple article 
of food for animals, for whdt is corn used ? Where are the largest fields of corn 
grown? Mention different kinds of corn, such as dent corn, pop corn, Kafir corn, 
and sweet corn, and study the uses of each. 

Study the neighborhood and determine whether it may be classed as having 
been a prairie or a timbered section. Notice what effect settlement has had as 

116 



regards the growth of trees. Prepare a list of the trees now growing in the 
vicinity and classify them as to size, form of leaves, kind of seed, color and hard- 
ness of wood, character of bark, and uses and value of seed and wood. 

Review the weather record for the first month to determine how many days 
the sun shone. How much warmer was it during sunshine than during cloudy 
weather ? Make an estimate of the total rainfall during the previous month. Was 
the precipitation normal for this neighborhood? 

Draw a map of the township, showing the highways, school houses, streams, 
timbered belts, if any, and churches. What is the name of the civil township? 
Explain the difference between a civil township and a congressional township. 
Give the number and range of this township. 

Questions : — Name the most useful insect found in this section. Prepare a 
list of the twelve most injurious insects common to the neighborhood. How do 
weeds come to grow in the fields from year to year? In what respects have the 
improvement of the farms changed the general aspect of this neighborhood ? How 
are the oak and willow propagated? Which is the most useful for human food, 
corn, rice, or wheat? Name five kinds of apples and four kinds of corn. 

Third Month. 

Study the food and shelter of farm animals. Make it clear that suitable shelter 
is as important in raising live stock as the food itself. It is easier and less ex- 
pensive to keep a horse in good condition when it is kept in a well-constructed barn 
than when it is exposed to the cold of winter. This is true likewise of all classes 
of animals. 

Barns, hog houses, kennels, and henhouses should be built with the view of 
securing good sanitation. They should protect against cold and at the same time 
have plenty of light and ventilation. Since all animals are subject to disease, it 
is important to care for them with the greatest possible concern. The profits are 
measured largely by good housing and judicious feeding. 

Write essays on the subjects Corn, Wheat, Rye, Cotton, Tobacco according 
to the following outline: 

1. General description. 

2. Planting. 

a. At what season. 

b. Preparation of the ground. 

c. How planted. 
■3. Cultivation. 

4. Diseases and insects. 

a. Name and character of. 

b. Damage to plant and seed, 
c' Means of prevention. 

5. Harvesting and use. 

a. Machinery employed in harvesting. 

b. Yield per acre in bushels or pounds. 

c. How prepared for use in commerce. 

Direct attention to the need of drainage on the farm. The tile drain furnishes 
the best kind of drainage in mose instances. Other drains, especially open ditches, 
may wash too large or may become filled with grasses and weeds. They cause 
a waste of land, while tile drains make it possible for all the surface to be cultivated. 

In some places it is necessary to provide against overflows. This is done by 
building levees and dikes. Where are the largest levees in the United States? 

117 



Irrigation, on the other hand, is a system of conducting water by ditches and canals 
to land that naturally is too dry for farming. Question the pupils about the arid 
regions of Canada and the United States. 

Take measurements of at least three horses as a means of studying the dif- 
ferent proportion of parts. Call attention to the height. at the withers, the girth 
just back of the shoulders, the girth at the flank, and the length from the withers 
to the setting of the tail. Define hoof, fetlock, hock, cork, mane, gullet, poll, 
muzzle. 

Describe the food that is best suited for chickens. When do hens lay the most 
•eggs, in which season ? Why should hens be supplied with gravel or oyster shells ? 
Draw a sketch of a suitable henhouse and write a description of It. Will hens 
lay eggs in the winter ? 

Write an essay on "Beauty of Life on the Farm." In this article make 
mention of good roads, the telephone, interurban railways, landscape gardening, 
and ornamental trees. Preserve the best essays for the school exhibit or the 
county fair. One or two of those may be sent for publication to a newspaper. 

Questions : — What can you say of the value of shelter for animals ? What 
is irrigation ? Explain different kinds of drainage. How many bushels per acre 
constitute a good yield of corn? What is the difference between drilling wheat 
and sowing it broadcast? Having suitable facilities, is it as profitable to raise 
chickens as it is to rear swine ? Can sheep feed on shorter grass than cows ? 

Fourth Month. 

Life on the farm in the winter is considered pleasant for many reasons. 
The farmer has garnered his grain and filled his mow with sweet-scented hay. 
His cellar contains the fruits of the orchard and the garden. He is now en- 
joying the products of the rich acres that were made fertile by wise husbandry. 
Although he has stored the food and provisions for his family and his animals, 
the hens still continue to lay fresh eggs and the cows yield a goodly quantity of 
milk for the household. What he consumes on his table is the pure and un- 
adulterated product fresh from nature. 

Compare with the food of the farmer the products that come to the tables 
in the city. The eggs and butter are shipped from the country points to be kept 
in cold storage, where they often become stale. However, the inspection of food 
and food products has been the means of greatly improving the quality. In the 
large city, vegetables and fruits are sold in a fresh condition the entire year. 
This is made possible by the advantages of rapid transportation facilities in all 
sections of the country. Meat, flour, and other staple products are nearly the 
same in the city and on the farm. 

The farmer feeds for the market a large part of the winter. This line of 
work, together with marketing the surplus product and preparing for the coming 
season, keeps his time well occupied. Farm animals need especial care during 
cold and wet weather. It is very essential that the live stock should be attended 
with sufficient care to have it in good condition in the spring. 

A horse should be fed both hay and grain throughout the year, except when 
it is kept in a good pasture, but relatively more grain is required when the horse 
is working. Give reasons why a horse cannot do heavy work when it is fed only 
on hay. The horse should have plenty of pure water three times each day. 

118 



Cows become more docile when they are dehorned. This should be done 
when the calf is about a week old. Cattle with horns must be kept tied, or stan- 
chioned, else the animals will injure each other by horning. Corn, oats, barley, 
and hay are the principal food of cattle. Beets and beans are fed to cattle in 
some countries. Cattle, camels, and goats are grown for meat and milk, but 
these products derived from cattle are the most important. 

Write an essay on Potato and make a drawing to show the plant. What 
other vegetables besides the potato are raised in the neighborhood? Tell when 
and how the potato is planted. In localities where the potato is grown in large 
fields, it is planted and dug by machinery. How are potatoes dug by farmers 
and gardeners in this vicinity? 

Explain how corn is planted, whether in hills or drills. How many feet 
apart are the rows of corn? If planted in hills, how many kernels are dropped 
in a hill? Write a description of the corn plant, mentioning the seed, the roots, 
the leaves, the tassel, and the ear. Describe the cob and tell how many rows 
there are in a particular ear which you have studied. Which Province of Canada 
produces the largest amount of corn? Name the five foremost corn-producing 
states of the United States. 

Questions : — What can you say about the life of the farmer in winter? Have 
the telephone and rural free delivery of mails made farm life pleasanter? How 
many times each day should a horse have water ? Does it pay to be kind to farm 
animals? Is dehorning a benefit to cows? In some localities corn is planted 
in hills and in others in drills, explain the reason. Which animal is the most 
important for the production of milk? Of what other animals is milk used? 

Fifth Month. 

Make an examination of several farm animals to study the difference in 
the coverings of their skin. Learn of what uses hair and feathers are in the 
market. Which feathers are the most useful, those of chickens or of ducks and 
geese? With what are sheep and hogs covered? 

Learn of some farmer who is feeding steers in the neighborhood and make 
the following record: 

1. Number and breed of steers. 

a. Whether Shorthorns, Herefords, etc. 

b. Color; whether red, spotted, etc. 

2. Food and water. 

a. Classes of food. 

b. How and when fed. 

c. Watering, how often. 

3. How many hogs are fed in the same yard? 

4. At what age should stock be marketed? 

Milch cows should be well fed on good hay and some grain in the winter. 
The richness of the milk depends partly on the breed of cows and partly on the 
food. Which is larger, a cow or an ox ? Is a cow profitable for any other pur- 
pose besides milking? 

Study the shade trees of the neighborhood. Which are best for shade and 
why? The soft maple, cottonwood, and boxelder are planted very extensively 
in some sections for shade because they are hardy and grow rapidly. Mention 
other trees that are planted for shade. What can you say of the oak, hard maple, 
and mahogany as ornamental trees? 

Collect the names of all the varieties of apples grown in the vicinity. 

119 



Describe the fruit of the early apples and tell for what purposes the different 
species are best adapted. What is a winter apple and how does it differ from a 

fall apple? 

The parts of plants are known as the root, stem, and leaves. Define each 
and explain the purposes it serves in the life of a plant. Explain how the food 
is taken up by the rootlets, is conveyed through the stem, and is then modified 
by the action in the leaves. Give a lesson on how plants receive nourishment both 
from the soil and the air. If corn is cultivated very close to the stem when it is 
quite large the leaves will droop. Explain the reason. 

Questions: — For what are the bristles of hogs used? Speak of the differ- 
ence between the Holstein and the Hereford cow. Mention two grades of cattle 
that are noted for giving milk. Why is butter of a deeper yellow color in the 
spring than in autumn ? Name and define the different parts of a plant. Should 
corn be cultivated close to the roots when it is large ? 

Sixth Month. 

Some plants are flowerless, but the greater number of common plants have 
flowers. Explain what a flower is and what purposes it serves. Make a study 
of the stamen and pistils, the stigma and anthers, the pollen, and the ovary. 
Make a careful study of each of these parts as to their structure and the purposes 
they serve. What is meant by fertilization and by cross fertilization? 

Make a study of the propagation of plants by seeding, cutting, and budding. 
How are corn, clover, the geranium, and the willow tree propagated? What is 
layering and of what use is it? Is the selection of seed an important factor in 
farming? 

Dry farming, or the Campbell System of Farming, is recommended for dry 
seasons and for arid regions. Its aim is to till the soil so the moisture is used 
to the best advantage. This is done by cultivating the growing crops frequently 
and in such a manner that the upper layers of the soil are well pulverized. This 
prevents excessive evaporation by closing the pores. Dry farming has been 
a great benefit to the arid regions of Canada and the United States. 

Study the different grasses that are grown for hay in the neighborhood. 
Collect samples of the native grasses that are valuable for hay. In the arid 
sections of North America, as from Alberta to Texas, the buffalo grass is an 
important plant for the reason that it is adapted to a dry climate. Although it is 
short, it makes fine pasturage and in some localities is cut for hay. Blue stem, 
or blue bent, next to buffalo grass, is considered of great value. It thrives best 
in moderately moist soil, but is found in the low and more fertile sections of arid 
districts. Bunch grass, mesquite, rye grass, and wire grass are common names 
of other native grasses. 

The plants cultivated extensively for hay include timothy, clover, alfalfa, 
redtop, millet, blue grass, brome grass, and sorghum. Study the grasses cultivated 
in this neighborhood and learn what advantages they possess over native grasses. 
Visit a hay mow and observe how the farmer preserves hay for future use. 

Questions: — What is a flowerless, or cryptogamous, plant? In what way 
are insects of importance in the growth of plants that bear flowers? Explain 
what is meant by budding, pruning, and grafting. When and where is dry farm- 

120 



ing- of value? Why is clover a valuable plant aside from its use for hay? 
Describe buffalo grass and tell where it is found. What native grasses are com- 
mon to this vicinity? When should grass be cut for hay? For seed? Speak 
of the feeding value of clover and timothy. 

Seventh Month. 

Prepare a hotbed as shown 
in the illustration. Plant some 
seeds that are commonly grown 
in the vicinity, such as beans, 
peas, ,corn, and potatoes. The 
plants should be studied as they 
grow. 

If it is not practicable to con- 
duct a small hotbed, then a box 
of good soil may be prepared in 
one of the windows of the school- 
room. It is well to plant a few 
weeds to observe their growth 




HOTBED.] ^ 



plants. 
What 



in connection with that of the useful 
Study plants that live only one year and some that live from year to year, 
are such plants called? 

Plants as well as animals are subject to diseases. Study the most common 
diseases known in the vicinity according to the following outlines: 

1. Diseases of plants. 

a. Causes and symptoms. 

b. Fungi : Rot, smut, rust, brand, mildew. 

:c. Insects : Eelworm, phylloxera, chinch bug, aphis, 
d. Bacteria and physiological diseases. 

2. Prevention or cure. 

a. Destroy affected leaves, twigs, or fruit. 

b. Kill spores on seeds before planting. 

c. Select seeds and plants that resist disease. 

d. Use tar, paint, etc., to cover wounds. 

e. Spray with poison to kill insects. 

f. Rotate crops to best advantage. 
Diseases of Animals. 

a. Prevention of; symptoms. 



b. 
c. 
d. 
e. 



Organic and functional diseases. 



Diathetic and enthetic diseases. 
Bacteria, Effect of on animals. 
Tuberculosis, Treatment of. 
Common Diseases. 

a. Horse — Colic, spavin, heaves, bots, bronchitis. 

b. Cattle — Tuberculosis, plague (Rinderpest), blackleg, milk fever. 

c. Swine — Cholera, worms, quinsy, trichina. • 

d. Sheep — Scab, rot (flukes), tetanus. 

e. Poultry — Gapes, cholera, tapeworms. 

f. Dog — Hydrophobia, distemper, tuberculosis. 

Every farmer should give attention to mixed farming. That is, he should 
raise crops and rear animals. This enables him to cultivate the ground to the 

121 



best possible advantage, since the feeding of stock enriches the soil and increases 
the yield per acre. It is a mistake to give attention only to the growth of grain 
and grass crops and then sell the products. This kind of farming gives rise to 
what is known as transportation of the soil, meaning that the richness is taken 
out of the land and transported to some other place or even to some other 
country. 

The farmer is protected by a diversity of crops and animals. If the season 
is unfavorable to one or two particular crops, the others may thrive. Besides, the 
markets are sometimes glutted by certain classes of farm and live-stock products, 
hence the farmer who engages in mixed farming will be sure to get good prices 
at least on certain products. 

Prepare a plat of some township to show all the established highways. On 
this plat indicate the roads that are good, that are passably good, and that are 
poor. Study the materials in the vicinity that may be utilized in building good 

roads. 

Noted roads built by the Romans in ancient times, such as the Appian Way, 
are still in use. They transported materials long distances, even without rail- 
roads, and their roads have endured fully twenty centuries. Learn what you 
can about concrete, macadam, asphalt, and brick paving. 

Questions: — What is a hotbed and why do plants grow rapidly in a well- 
constructed one? Explain the meaning of fungus diseases. Name six diseases 
that are common to plants and six that are common to animals. What is 
meant by the transportation of the soil? Is it important to have good roads? 
Which is cheaper, to build a good road or to repair a poor road from year to 
year? Describe the Appian Way and tell how it was built. 



Eighth Month. 

Plant one or more trees. Prepare the ground to receive the trees to the 
best advantage. Notice the proper depth for planting, spread the roots as much 
as possible, and prune the limbs so as to balance the tree as nearly as possible. 
Notice the buds and the new leaves as they appear in the spring. 

In a dry season a barrel filled with water may be set near a newly planted 
tree, the barrel having a small opening near the bottom so the water can run 
out and constantly irrigate the roots. Weeds should not be permitted to grow 
near the tree. The ground should not be cultivated when it is so moist that it 
will stick to the tools. 

Make a study of tools and implements used by the farmer, such as the plow, 
harrow, wagon, cultivator, reaper, and threshing machine. How did the ancients 
thresh their grain? Name the utensils necessary in making a garden. 

Not many years ago D. Ward King of Maitland, Mo., devised a drag to 
smooth the roads. This is known as the King Road Drag. It is made of two 
pieces of heavy timber, fastened together with crossbars, and one or both of the 
timbers have an iron bar to protect the wood and cut the surface of the ground. 
A chain is attached to the drag in such a manner that the timbers will point in 
a diagonal direction across the highway. When the horses pull the drag, it has 
a position so the dirt is worked toward the middle of the road. This drag in an 

122 



improved form is now used very extensively, 
or when the surface is moderately moist. 



It works best after a slight rain, 





BI.ACKPXCK HIGHI^AND RAM. CHEVIOT EWE. 

The rise in the value of land has had a marked influence upon farming. 
Formerly much of the land was allowed to grow up in weeds. It is now the 
object to utilize every foot of the land for some definite purpose. The swamp 
and wet lands are being drained, the scrubby tracts are being cleared, and the 
dry districts are being irrigated. Economy in the expenditure of energy pays a 
large dividend in farming. Study the neighborhood to learn how farming and 
stock raising can be improved. 

The purpose of the farmer should be to enrich the soil from year to year. 
If forty bushels of corn per acre was a good crop when the soil was virgin, the 
yield should be even better at present. This will depend entirely upon how the 
land is cultivated and what amount of fertilizer is used. We cannot expect the 
soil to maintain its virgin fertility indefinitely, to yield without recompense, but 
must do our part if we would enjoy the fruit that is in store for the industrious 
and the intelligent. The unlearned savage may get small returns from the soil, 
but a richer harvest is in store for the educated agriculturalist of modern times. 

Let us learn from the polder farms of the Netherlands, where the soil has 
been cultivated with growing success for more than five hundred years. Once 
the bottom of the sea, it is now the richest farming district in the world. Let us 
profit by the careful husbandry of Switzerland, where the alluvial soil is carried 
in buckets from the valleys to enrich the higher slopes and hillsides. When we 
take all this into account, when we jconsider how waste has been turned into pro- 
ductiveness, we must realize the vast possibilities of agriculture in this country. 

Questions: — In planting trees, should the roots be spread apart or packed 
closely together? Should the ground near newly planted trees be kept clean so 
heat and light may penetrate the soil? Why? What is a King Drag? Has 
the rise in the value of farm lands had a beneficial influence upon farming? Can 
the soil be enriched so it will produce more than when it was in a virgin condi- 
tion ? What is polder ? Contrast farming in Europe with farming in America. 

Ninth Month. 

Review the lessons for the previous months of the year. Make a careful 
study of the weather record. What was the average temperature in November? 
In February? In which month did the sun shine the greatest number of days, 
in September or in March? How much in inches was the rainfall for the past 
six months? 

Observe whether horses or mules are most numerous in the neighborhood. 
Study these animals so as to learn which requires the larger amount of grain. 
What are the prices of good work horses and mules? Write a description of 

123 



these animals, making it a point to explain the physical difference between them. 

Make a study of young farm animals at the age of one and two years. Which 
will weigh more at one year old, a colt or a steer? Do horses and cattle lie 
down and get up the same way? At what age is it most profitable to market 
hogs? How much should a thrifty hog weigh at that age? 

Study the leading farm animals in the neighborhood, using as a basis as 
nearly as possible the following 

Outline on the Horse. 



I. Description. 

a. Height, weight, covering. 

b. Head, ears, mane^ tail. 

c. Legs and hoof; structure and 

form. 

d. Body — Skeleton, organs. 
■e. Beauty, grace, docility. 

II. Characteristics. 

a. Sense and intelligence. 

b. Strength, speed, longevity. 

c. Age at which broken for 

work. 

III. Classification and Uses. 

a. Draft, race, coach, riding. 

b. Farming, draying, racing, 

traveling. 

c. Utility in war and military 

maneuvers. 

IV. Fog d — Hay, corn, oats, barley, 

beans, grass, etc. 
V. Treatment. 

a. Feeding and watering. 

b. How broken for work. 

c. How and when shod. 
VI. Breeds of Horses. 

a. D r a f t — Clydesdale, Perch- 
eron, Belgian. 




VII. 



BELGIAN HORSE. 

b. R a c i n g — Bashaw, Hamble- 

tonian, Morgan. 

c. C o a c h — G e r m a n Coach, 

Hackney, French Coach. 

d. Ponies — Shetland, Galloway, 

Indian. 

e. Hybrid — Mule or donkey. 
The Horse in Literature. 

a. Black Beauty — Anna Sewell. 
. b. The Arab's Farewell to His 
Steed — Caroline Norton. 



Questions on the Horse. 

Compare the value of the horse to that of the camel. 

Speak of the fossils of horses and tell where they are found. 

What country produces the most beautiful breed of horses? 

Mention the leading breeds of horses found in this vicinity. 

Did the early European explorers find horses in America? 

From what source did the wild horses of South America originate? 

What can you. say of the docility of the horse? 



124 




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Orthography and Orthoepy 



Outline. 

I. Definitions— Orthography ; Orthoepy ; Elementary Sound ; Letter ; Syl- 
lable; Word. 

II. Elementary Sounds — Number, classes. 

1. a. Vowels; b. Consonants. 

2. Vowels— Definition ; Number (a, e, i, o, u, sometimes w and y). 

III. Consonants — Number (31). 

IV. Diphthongs, digraphs, trigraphs, double consonants. 
V. Substitutes, accent. 

VI. Diacritical marks. 

VII. Spelling, a. By letter ; b. Phonetically. 
VIII. Sounds of vowels and consonants. 
■ IX. Articulation and pronunciation. 
X. Formation of plurals; possessives. 
XI. Use of capital letters. 
XII. Rules for spelling. 
DEFINITION. Orthography is that division of grammar which treats of 
spelling and pronunciation. It embraces Orthoepy, which treats of articulate 
sounds and their correct use in pronunciation. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is foremost as a work of 
general reference in that all but the simple titles are divided into syllables and 
are marked diacritically. In this wholesome feature it has been the pioneer 
among cyclopaedias. With a set of this work the student is enabled to study the 
general topics of knowledge and to become a master in the arts of writing and 
conversation. 

TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY. In English schools orthography is taught 
as a branch apart from grammar. The varied and numerous anomalies of our 
language make this an absolute necessity. Correct pronunciation cannot be 
secured, in many cases, from the printed form. While, on the other hand, the 
pronunciation gives the learner no clue to proper spelling. 

It may require some effort to lead pupils to understand that d-a-y is pro- 
nounced "da" and q-u-a-y "ke," while c-h-o-i-r and q-u-i-r-e are pronounced 
the same. There are hundreds of words used in our school text-books and in 
common language that show equal disregard for fixed rules of spelling or pro- 
nunciation. 

FORMATION OF PLURALS. In the formation of plurals the pupil is 

125 



often bewildered. Many English words have no distinction in singular or plural 
forms, while others are formed irregularly. It is difficult for a beginner to 
understand that the plural of ox is oxen ; and that the plural of box is boxes, 
not boxen; that the plural of house is houses and that the plural of mouse is 
mice, not ^nouses. Some words have two plural forms, among the number 
brother, die, and penny may be named. Many other examples could be added, 
if it were necessary, to show that correct spelling and pronunciation are difficult 
to secure and that, for this reason, orthography is one of the most important 
branches to be mastered in the grammar schools. The combined experience of 
educators has led to the belief that very careful and thorough work should be 
done in this line. 

THE PRINTING PRESS. The printing press has done much toward 
giving the English-speaking people better orthography and more distinct pro- 
nunciation than all other causes combined. The people of the present age read 
more extensively and exhaustively; they carry on a wider range of corres- 
pondence and business intercourse than the people of any previous time. All 
this has done much toward improving the orthographical construction of lan- 
guage. 

In general, this is an object lesson. It proves that the nature and extent of 
the results secured depend very much upon the efforts put forth in securing 
them. It shows also that pupils may be benefited through channels of practice 
in oral and written drills, in dictation work, in letter and composition writing, 
and in every way that their language and orthography may be improved and 
their vocabulary increased. 

DRILLS IN PRONUNCIATION. Usually pupils spell better than they 
pronounce. This may be attributed to a lack of sufficient work on the elementary 
sounds and diacritical markings in a majority of schools. For this reason it 
may be in order to suggest that the teacher place the orthography on the pro- 
gram as of equal importance with language. The pronunciation of words should 
be constantly guarded by the teacher in class recitation, together with the spell- 
ing in both the recitations and in manuscript work. Drills in pronunciation 
should be given until the student can use each word with facility. 

WHAT WORDS MEAN. Teaching the meaning of words is another 
desirable feature. There are few who, after giving the matter some reflection, 
will hold that it is of any value for pupils to spell long lists of words in rote 
without comprehending their meaning or signification, yet it is practiced in a 
great many of our schools. Would it not be better to lead the pupil to study 
each new word in the lesson and thus enable him to use it with precision? It 
is true that his vocabulary is increased only by such words as he can spell, pro- 
nounce, and use accurately. This is a matter that every student should under- 
stand. 

ASSIGNING LESSONS. Lessons should be assigned with care, the 
teacher pointing out the objects to be attained by study. New words may be 
pronounced, thus helping the pupils in the preparation. In the next recitation 
it should be ascertained whether the directions given at the previous recitation 
have been observed and the objects pointed out have been secured. The recita- 
tions should be made instructive, thus encouraging the student to put forth his 
best effort. 

126 



ORAL AND WRITTEN SPELLING. The two methods of teaching 
spelHng are the oral and ivritten, in which a spelling book and the dictionary are 
used regularly. The teacher should pronounce the words but once, and have 
pupils pronounce before spelling orally. Usually it is best to require both oral 
and written work. The advantages in oral spelling are that pupils learn to 
pronounce words correctly and that it enables the class to drill on a large number 
of words in a short time. For this reason it is well adapted for review work 
both in pronunciation and spelling. 

In written spelling the pupil secures a better knowledge of the form of 
the word, and the division of words into syllables. It requires every pupil to 
spell all the words pronounced and to obtain a proper idea of the use of capital 
letters, the hyphen, and other marks. In marking the work, the teacher should 
take into account all these points as well as to note the penmanship and accuracy 
with which the work is executed. 

DAILY DRILLS. It is advisable to give daily drills on the sounds and 
markings of words, to spell by letter and by sound as well as writing the word. 
Geographical names and terms in arithmetic, grammar, and other branches 
should be spelled as they are used in the class for the first time. New words, or 
those difficult to spell, should be used in sentences by the pupils. Synonyms, with 
which our language abounds, should receive early and marked attention. 
Homonyms of words should be given as opportunity presents. Orthographic 
parsing, that is, separating words into their elements and giving their classi- 
fication and modification, is very desirable and profitable. 

DIACRITICAL MARKING. 
The English alphabet contains fewer letters than the spoken sounds that 
are in use, hence some of the letters are modified to represent these sounds. In 
orthography these modifications are indicated by certain marks, known as dia^ 
critical marks. They are shown in the following table, affixed to certain letters, 
and the name is stated to the right: 



a Breve (short). 

a Macron (long). 

a Circumflex (circumflex). 

a Dot above (short Italian). 

9. Dot below (short obscure). 

a Dots above (Italian). 

a Dots below (broad). 



a Inverted breve (=:o). 

a Suspended bar (long obscure). 

e Tilde. 

e Hard c (=^k). 

g Cedilla (=.y). 

36 Diphthong (as e alone). 

66 Large breve (long). 



Guide to Pronunciation. 



VOWELS, 
a (short), as in hat, cat. 
a (long), as in ale, hate. 
a (Italian), as in car, mar. 
a (short Italian), as in fast, class. 
a (broad), as in all, fall. 
k (circumflex), as in care, snare. 
a (short obscure), as in final, spinal. 
a, (long obscure), as in surface. 
a=:6, as in was, what. 

se = e, as in Caesar (sounded as though they 
were e alone). 

e (short), as in net, met. 

e (long), as in me, eve. 

e (circumflex = a), as in there. 

e (tilde), as in her. 

e (short obscure), as in patent. 

e (long obscure), as in delay. 

e = i, as in pretty. 



5t (short), as in hit, bit. 

I (long), as in kite, mite. 

1 (tilde), as in sir. 

i (long obscure), as in idea. 

6 (short,), as in pop, hop. 
6 (long), as in cone, bone. 
6 (circumflex = a), as in for. 
6 (long obscure), as in hero. 
06 (short), as in book, brook. 
60 (long), as in moon, spoon. 
o = u, as in word. 
p = 60, as in who. 
6 ^ 06, as in wolf, 
6 =: u, as in son. 

u (short), as in rut, cut. 

u (long), as in muse, fuse. 

u (circumflex), as in turn, urn. 

a (long obscure), as in unite. 



127 



w is a vowel only after a vowel, when it g (hard), as in dog, gave. 

forms the second element of certain g (soft), as in gem, gentle. 

diphthongs, as in few, how. k for the German ch, as mich, Bach (bak). 

ii for the German ii, as in Bluchvr, GrUnberg. 

y (short) =1, as in Jiymn. 5 for the German o, as in Gottingen, 
y (long) = T as m by, cry. G or gey. 

CONSONANTS. n for the French n, as in ban, Breton 
e (hard) =k, as in cat, cape. (bra-ton'). 
g (cedilla) = s, as in cell, fagade. 



Rules for Spelling. 

RULE I. — Final e followed by a vowel. 

Final ^ of a primitive word is dropped on taking a suffix beginning with a 
vowel. Examples: blame -l-able=blamable ; guide+ance=guidance ; come-f- 
ing^=coming; force+ible=forcible ; obscure-|-ity=obscurity. 

Exception 1. — Words ending in ge or ce usually retain the e before a suffix 
beginning with a or 0, for the reason that c and g would have the hard sound if 
the e were dropped. Examples : peace+able=peaceable ; change-}- able=change- 
able; courage-)-ous=courageous. 

Exception 2. — Words ending in oe final retain the e to preserve the sound 
of the root; as shoe-f-ing=shoeing; hoe-f-ing=hoeing. The e is retained in a 
few words to prevent their being confounded with similar words, as singe-(-ing= 
singeing, to prevent its being confounded with singing. 

RULE IL — Final e followed by a consonant. 

Final ^ of a primitive word is retained on taking a suffix beginning with a 
consonant. Example : pale-|-ness=paleness ; large-f-ly=largely. 

Exception I.- -When the final e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes 
omitted. Example: due4-ly=duly ; true-l-ly=truly ; whole-}-ly=wholly. 

Exception 2. — A few words ending in e drop the e before a suffix beginning 
with a consonant. Example: judge -l-ment=judgment; lodge -)-ment=lodg- 
ment ; abridge-l-ment=abridgment. 

RULE III. — Final y preceded by a consonant. 

Final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally 
changed into i on the addition of a suffix. 

Exception 1. — Before ing or ish, the final 3; is retained to prevent the 
doubling of the i. Example : pity4-ing=pitying. 

Exception 2. — ^Words ending in ie and dropping the e by 'Rule I. change the 
i into y to prevent the doubling of the i. Examples: die-!-ing=:dying; lie-f- 
ing^=lying. 

Exception 3. — Final y is sometimes changed into c; as duty-l-ous=duteous ; 
beauty -f-ous=beauteous. 

RULE IV. — Final y preceded by a vowel. 

Final 3; of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be 
changed into an i before a suffix. Example: joy4-less=joyless. 

RULE V. — Doubling. 

Words of one syllable (monosyllables), and words accented on the last 
syllable, when they end with a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, or 
by a vowel after qu, double their final letter before an additional syllable that 
begins with a vowel. Example: rob-f ed=robbed ; fop-|-ish=:foppish ; squat-I- 
er=squatter ; prefer-f-ing^=preferring. 

128 



Exceptions. — X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled; and when 
the derivative does not retain the accent of the root, the final consonant is not 
always double; as pref er-|-ence==preference. 

RULE VI.— No Doubling. 

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the 
accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional 
syllable; as, toil+ing^toiling; cheat+ed=cheated ; murmur+ing^^murmuring.- 



Geographical Prefixes and Suffixes. 

Key to Abbreviations. 

Arab.=Arabic. Heb.=Hebrew. 

A. S.=Anglo-Saxon. Ind.=Indian. 

Celt.=Celtic. Ir.=Irish. 

D.=Dutch. It.=Italian. 

Eng.=English. Lat.=Latin. 

Fr.=French. Per.=Persian. 

Ger.=German. Port.=Portuguese. ' 

Gr.=Greek. Span.=Spanish. 

Ab_, or AUB [Per.], water; a river. 

Doab, two rivers ; Punjauh, five rivers, 
Abing, or abbot [A. S.], an abbot. 

Abbe [Fr.], an abbot. Abingdon; Abbotsbury; Abbeville. 
AcQUA [It], AGOA [Port.], AGUA [Span.]^ AiGUE, Aix, EAUX [Fr.], water. 

Acquapendente, hanging water; Agoa Fria, cold water; Agua Didce, sweet 
water; Aix-la-Chapelle, waters of the chapel; Bordeaux, border of the 
waters. 
Albus [Lat.], white. Alps; Alpine; Albion. 
Altus [Lat.], high; [Span.], alta. 

Altamura, high wall; Alta California, Upper California. 
Anti [Gr.], opposite. Antarctic; Antitaurns. 
Ash [A. S.], ash. AsMeld; Ashton (town) ; Ashland. 
AvEN, or AVON [Celt.], water. 

Avondale; Strathaven, valley of the Avon. 
Bab [Arab.], a gate; a court. 

Babylon, court of Belus; Bab-el-Mandeb, gate of tears. 
Bad, or baden [Ger.], bath or baths. 

Badenhausen, bath houses; Carlsbad, Charles's bath. 
Bab, ball, bally [Celt.], a township; a village. 

Ballyclare, town on the plain. 
Bar [Sanskrit], country. Malabar, country of mountains. 
Baton [Fr.], stick. Baton Rouge, red stick. 
Bayou [Fr.], stream. Bayou Pierre, Peter's Creek. 
Beau, bel, belle [Fr.], beautiful. 

Belmont (mountain) ; Belleisle; Puerto Bella, fine harbor. 
Ben [A. S.], a bean. Bennington (town) ; BinHeld. 
Ben, or Pen [Celt.], a hill or mountain. 

Ben Lomond, beacon mountain; Ben Nevis, cloud-capped mountain. 

129 



Berg [Ger.], a hill. Adelsherg, noble hill; Schwartsenberg, black mountain. 
Beth [Heb.], a house. 

Bethel, house of God; Bethlehem, house of bread. 
BoN^ BONNE [Fr.], and bueno or buena [Span.], good; fine. 

Terrebonne, good land; Buena Vista, fine view; Buenos Ayres, good air. 
Bridge [Eng.], or bruck [Ger.], a bridge. 

Cambridge, over the Cam; Innsbruck, over the Inn. 
Brook, a brook. Westbrook; BropkHeld; Overbrook. 
Burg [A. S. and Ger.], borg [Dan.], and bourg [Fr.], town or borough. 

Augsburg, town of Augustus ; Cherbourg, Caesar's town ; Edinburgh, Ed- 
win's town; Canterbury, city of Kent; Nezvburg; Oldenburg; Harrisburg. 
Burn, born, bourne, bone [A. S.], brunn [Ger.], a brook. 

Burnham, brook-home; Sherborn, clear brook; Heilbronn, fountain of 
health; Schonbrunn, beautiful fountain. 
By [A. S.], a village or town. 

Kirkby, church town ; Rugby, rock town ; Ashby. 
Caster, cester, Chester [A. S.], a camp or fortress. 

Lancaster, fortress on the Lune ; Dorchester, camp by the river ; Gloucester, 
fair city or camp. 
Costa [Span.], coast. Costa Rica, rich coast. 
Castle [Eng.], chateau [Fr.], cassel [Ger.], a castle. 

Newcastle; Castleton (town) ; Neufchatel, new castle. 
Dale, del [Eng.], thal [Ger.], daal [D.], vale or valley. 

Dovedale; Bloemendaal, vale of flowers. 
Dam, damm [D.], a dike or dam. 

Amsterdam, on the dam of the Amstel ; Rotterdam, on the dam of the Rotter. 
Dover [A. S.] a ferry. Andover; Hardover. 
Dun, or don [Celt.], a hill, or a fort on a hill. 

Dundee, fort on the Tay ; Snozvdon, snow-hill. 
East, est, es [A. S.], ost [Ger.], east. 

Eastham, east home; Easton, east town; Essex, East Saxony; Osterreich, 
or Austria, east kingdom. 
Eisen [Ger.]^ iron. 

Eisensfadt, iron town ; Eisenberg, iron mountain. 
Ey, ea [A. S.], an island. 

Anglesey, island of the Angles; Jersey, Caesar's Island; Romney, marsh 
island. 
Fair [Eng.], beautiful. 

Fairhaven; Fairmount; Fairfield; Fair Oaks. 
Field [Eng.], feld [A. S.], a field. 

Marsh-field; Winfield, field of victory; Litchfield, field of dead bodies. 
Folk [Eng.], people. Norfolk (north) ; Suffolk (south). 
Ford [A. S.], furt or furth [Ger.], a ford. 

Bradford (broad); Hartford (hart); Frankford (free). 
Frank [Ger.], free; noble. France; Frankfort. 
Ham [A. S.], heim [Ger.], home. 

Nottingham, home with caves ; Durham, home for deer ; Waltham, home in 
the wood. 

130 



High [Eng.], hoch, hohen [Ger.], high. 

Highgate; Hohenlinden, high lindens. 
Hurst [A. S.], wood; forest. 

Lyndhurst, forest on the Lynn; Brockhurst, forest on the brook. 
Kill [D.], creek. Bushkill; Fishkill; Schuylkill (hidden). 
Ley^ or LY [A. S.], field; meadow; pasture. 

Paisley, moist pasture ; Beverly, field of the beaver. 
Mill [Eng.], mijhl [Ger.], mill. 

Millhrook; Miihlhausen, mill village. 
Mount [Eng.], mont [Fr.], mont [Span.], monte [It.], mountain. 

Fairmount; Mont Blanc, white mountain; Montserrat, jagged mountain. 
Negro [It. and Span.], black. 

Montenegro, black mountain; Negropont, black bridge; Rio Negro, black 
river. 
North [Eng.], nord [Fr. and Ger.], north. 

Northumberland, north of the Humber; Norwich, north village; Norway, 
north way; Rio del Norte, river of the north. 
PoLis [Gr.], a city. 

Sevastopol, city of Augustus ; Tripoli, three cities ; Indianapolis; Annapolis. 
Port [Eng.], puerto [Span.], haven. 

Bridgeport; Portland; Puerto Rico, rich haven or port. 
Rio [Span, and Port.], a river. 

Rio Grande; Rio Negro; Rio de la Plata, river of silver. 
Schwartz [Ger.], black. 

Schwartsenherg, black hill ; Schwartzenwald, black forest. 
Sierra [Span.], serra [Port, and Lat.], a saw or mountain. 

Sierra Blanc a, white mountain ; Sierra M arena, red mountain ; Sierra Nevada, 
snow mountain; Sierra Madre, mother mountain; Sierra Leone, lion 
mountain. 
Stadt [Ger.], town. Carlstadt, Charles's town. 
Stan [Per.] country. 

Hindoostan, country of Hindoos; Kordistan, country of Koords; Turkestan, 
country of Turks ; Afghanistan. 
Stock, stoke, stol, stow [A. S.], place or seat. 

Woodstock; Stockbridge; Bradstow, broad place. 
Strat [A. S.], strasse [Ger.], street. 

Stratford, ford by the street ; Stratton, street town ; Strassburg, town on the 
highway. 
Thorpe, throp_, trop [A. S.], a village. 

Althorp, old village ; Winthrop, village of the furze. 
Town [Eng.], ton, tun [A. S.], a town. 

Charlestown; Charleston; Brighton, Brighthelm's town; Sutton, soutH town; 
Boston, St. Botolph's town. 
WiCH, wick [A. S.], a town; a bay. 

Greenwich; Norwich; Sandwich; Dantsic, village of the Danes. 
Worth [A. S.], mansion, manor, or town. 

Bosworth, St. Botolph's town; Kenilworth, mansion on the canal. 

131 



Anthropology 



Know then thyself, presume not God to scan; 
The proper study of mankind is man. 

—Pope. 



All that tread 
The globe are but a handful to the tribes 
That slumber in its bosom. 

— Bryant. 



ANTHROPOLOGY is the science of man and mankind. In the broadest 
signification it inchides the entire field of sciences which relate to human 
life, especially government, history, language, literature, philosophy, phy- 
siology, psychology, and religion. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia presents a greatly di- 
versified fund of knowledge on this subject. It affords the opportunity to study 
man not only as a zoological genus, but furnishes the means to investigate the 
sources of human development. Beginning with primitive life, it traces the 
growth upward in the expanse of mind and the evolution of culture. 

The outlines in this subject cover the more important field. They may be 
considered in connection with other titles that are outlined under related topics, 
such as Agriculture, Biography, Literature, Nature Study, etc. The student 
is likewise referred to the articles on the following 



Aesthetics. 

Age. 

Agriculture. 

Archeology. 

Barrow. 

Boomerang. 

Burial. 

Cannibal. 

Caste. 

Caucasian. 

Cave Dwellers. 

Clan. 

Cliff Dwellers. 

Cremation. 

Cuneiform. 

Darwinism. 

Demon. 

Dress. 

Education. 

Ethics. 



Correlated Subjects: 

Ethnology. 

Evolution. 

Fable. 

Facial Angle. 

Fetich. 

Folklore. 

Ghost. 

Giants. 

God. 

Hair Dressing. 

Hierog-lyphics. 

History. 

Indians. 

Labor. 

Lake Dwellings. 

Language. 

Law. 

Legend. 

Magic. 

Malays. 

132 



Man. 

Marriage. 

Mermaid. 

Mongolian. 

Mound Builders. 

Mythology. 

Nature Worship. 

Negro. 

Polygamy. 

Religion. 

Sacrifice. 

Skull. 

Slavery. 

Stonehenge. 

Superstition. 

Suttee. 

Tomahawk. 

Totemism. 

Wigwam. 

Witchcraft. 



Questions on Anthropology. 

Define anthropology and name some sciences that are closely related to 
it. 111. 

With what stage of life should the study of this subject begin? 

How does Darwin account for the origin of man? 

State some other theories regarding man's origin. 

In what respect is man superior to other animals? 

What does the science of biology include? 

Under biology, how is living matter treated? 

Through whom did the word sociology come into use? With what is it 
closely connected? 2669. 

Name some of the early writers on sociology, ethnology, and evolution. 

Why is the mythology of the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians considered of 
great interest? 

Compare the primitive means of communication with those of to-day. 

What can you say of the homes, food, apparel, etc., of the early peoples? 

Who is considered as the greatest promoter of education among the Negroes 
of North America? 

To what race do the people of Northern Canada belong? Why are they 
icalled Eskimos? 

Which race is least in population? Which is most numerous? 

How extensive is the distribution of the white race? 

State some of the early advances of civilization among the Chinese. 



Man in Literature. 

Men are but children of a larger growth; 
Our appetites are apt to change as theirs, 
And full as craving too, and full as vain. 

— Dryden. 

In the sweat of thy face thou shalt eat bread, 
Till thou return unto the ground ; for thou 
Out of the ground wast taken: know thy birth, 
For dust thou art, and shalt to dust return. 

—Milton. 

My heart is awed within me, when I think 
Of the great miracle that goes on 
In silence round me — the perpetual work 
Of Thy creation, finished, yet renewed 
Forever. Written on Thy works I read 
The lesson of Thy own eternity. 
Lo ! all grow old and die — but, see again ! 
How on the faltering footsteps of decay 
Youth presses — ever gay and beautiful youth 
In all its beautiful forms. These lofty trees 
Wave not less proudly that their ancestors 
Moulder beneath them. Oh, there is not lost 
One of earth's charms : upon her bosom yet, 
After the flight of untold centuries, 
The freshness of her far beginning lies, 
And yet shall lie. 

— Bryant. 

133 



Races of Man. 



1. Primary. 

1. Caucasian, or White Race. 

A. Location — Europe, Southwestern Asia, America, and colonies. 

B. Description. 

a. Round, oval head. 

b. Fair complexion. 

c. Arched forehead. 

d. Symmetrical features. 

e. Vertical teeth. 

f. Smooth hair, 

g. Ample beard. 

C. Divisions. 

a. Hamitic — Originally inhabited Palestine, Arabian Peninsula, 

and Nile valley. 

b. Semitic, or Syro-Arabian. 

Modern — Syrians, Jews, Arabians, Abyssinians. 
Ancient — Assyrians, Babylonians, Moabites, Edomites, Phoe- 
nicians, Ammonites, Ishmaelites. 

c. Indo-European, or Aryan — Japhetic (Most civilized). 

1. Germanic — Germans, Dutch, English, Flemings, Danes, 

Swedes, Norwegians. 

2. Celts — Welsh, Irish, Scots, Bretons of France. 

3. Ancient Greeks. 

4. Romanic — French, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese. 

5. Slavonic — Russians, Croats, Poles, Czechs. 

6. Iranians — Afghans, Persians, Baluchis. 

7. Hindus. 

2. Mongolian, or Yellow Race. 

A. Constitute one-third of the earth's population. 

B. Location — Most of Asia, parts of Europe not occupied by whites, 

and Northern America. 

C. Distribution. 

a. Central Asia — Tibetans, Chinese, Indo-Chinese, etc. 

b. Northern Asia — Samoyedes, Ugrian or Finnic, Tungusians, 

Yakuts. 

Others — Coreans, Japanese, Kamchatdales, Mongols, etc. 

c. Europe — Turks, Magyars, Lapps, Finns. 

d. America — Eskimos. 

D. Description. 

a. Angular face. 

b. Broad head, 

c. Oblique eyes. 

d. Straight, coarse, black hair. 
High cheek bones, 

f. 



Pale lemon to brownish- 
yellow skin. 
g. Scanty beard, 
h. Medium stature. 
3. Negro, or Black Race. 

A. Location — Africa, portions of warm zones. 

B. Description. 

a. Narrow and elongated head 

b. Projecting jaws. 

c. Thick lips. 

d. Crisp, curly hair. 

134 




FACIAL ANGLERS. 



e. Black, dusky skin. 

f. Scanty beard on upper lip. 

g. Long arm. 
h. Broad feet. 



C. Species. 

a. Western Africa — Jaloffs, Mandingos, Ashantees. 

b. Eastern — Gallas. 

c. North Central — Tibboos. 

d. South Central — Cong-os. 

e. Southern — Hottentots and Kafirs. 

D. Civilization. 

a. Gallas — Cruel, handsome, and gifted. , 

b. Hottentots — Most debased. 

c. Many becoming profound and enlightened scholars when sub- 

jected to the advantages of civilization and education. 

d. Population in United States, 10,500,000. 

II. Secondary. 

1. Malay, or Brown Race. 

A. Location — Island of Madagascar, Malay Peninsula, Malay Arch- 

ipelago, the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. 

B. Description. 

a. Resembles the Mongolians. 

b. Horizontal eyes. 

c. Coarse, straight hair. 

d. Dark olive skin. 

C. Characteristics. 

a. Simplicity of language and expression. 

b. Excellent traders. 

c. Semicivilized. 

D. Contrasts. 

a. Papuans — Dark brown, even black. 

b. Malay — Normal. 

2. Australian. 

A. Subspecies of Papuan branch of the Malays. 

B. Description. 

a. Deep-set eyes. 

b. Large head. 

c. Abundant beard. 

d. Dark hair. 

e. Dark brown skin. 

f. Almost destitute of civilization. 

C. Inhabits all of Australia not inhabited by whites. 

3. American, or Copper-Colored Race. 

A. Resemble Mongolians (Top of head more rounded, sides less 

angular). 

B. Location — America. 

a. Andean people — Advanced in civilization and understood 

metallurgy. 

b. Central America class — Of still higher and more ancient civili- 

zation. 

C. Once numerous and powerful. 

D. Rapidly disappearing. 

E. Mixed with Spanish and whites. 

III. Numerical Strength. 

1. Mongolian, 650,000,000. 

2. Caucasian, 575,000,000. 

3. Negro, 175,000,000. 

4. Malay, 40,000,000. 

5. American, 20,000,000. 

6. Australian and mixed races, 40,000,000. 

135 



Questions on the Races of Man. 

Into how many classes does the most recent classification divide the human 
race ? 

Upon what are these classifications based ? Who may be mentioned as good 
authority on this branch of knowledge? 

To what three main divisions does the white race belong? 512. 

Compare the white race intellectually and morally with the other races. 

Which race is the greatest in number? The least? 

Name some nationalities of the yellow race. 

Describe a Negro. To what continent is the Negro native? 

What standing do the Hottentots have among other classes of the world ? 

How did the black race become scattered? 

Where are the Malays located? For what are they noted? 1684. 

What is said of the possible improvement of the Australian race? 

Name some of the chief factors necessary to civilizing a nation. 

Account for the speedy colonization and civilization of America. 

Who are the Jews, Japs, Filipinos, Finns, Papuans, Creoles, and Gallas? 

Which nation contains the largest per cent, of the world's population? 



Dwellers in Cliffs and Caves. 

I. In Caves. 

1. Early habitations — Belgium, France, Great Britain. 

2. Later peoples — Southwestern part of the United States and Mexico. 

3. Dwellings. 

A. Location — In natural caves. 

Under shelter of rocks. 
Near streams of water. 
Wide entrance, high roof, light and airy. 

4. Animals — Cave bear, saber-toothed tiger, hyena, etc. 

5. Weapons and utensils — Made of wood, bone, horn, and stone. 

6. Raiment — Animal skins sewed together. 

7. Decorations — Crude paintings and carvings. 

8. Ornaments — Made of ivory and teeth of animals. 

II. In Cliffs. 

1. Where located. 

A. California. C. New Mexico. 

B. Arizona.' D. Mexico. 

2. Homes. 

A. Made in natural clififs along Rio Grande and Colorado rivers. 

B. Built of adobe blocks, plastered inside, and clayed on exterior, 

C. Rather square windows and doors. 

D. Inelosures made by stone slabs, skins, or blankets. 

E. Single dwelling — For one family in small recess. 

F. Communal — Serving many families in larger quarters. 

G. Reached by ladders and rocky stairways. 

H. Collection of material — By women and children. 

3. Traces, 

A. Ruins of dwellings. 

B. Exhumed bodies. 

C. Articles of manufacture — Pottery, carvings, missils, etc. 

4. Occupations. 

A. Agriculture. 

a. Raising of domestic animals. 

b. Products — Maize, cotton, tobacco. 

B. Manufacture. 

5. Government — Tribal. 

6. Extinction — By Apache Indians. 

136 



Questions on Cliff and Cave Dwellers. 

Where were the earliest traces of the cave dwellers found? 513. 

What can you say of the state of civilization among these peoples? 

According to discovered relics, what animals were known to them? 

Where are remains of cliff-dwellers found at present? 602. 

Explain the formation of natural cliffs and terraces. 

Describe the construction of the houses occupied by cliff-dwellers. 

What did they use for windows and doors? 

What means for ascent were made to reach these elevated dwellings? 

To what extent were they skilled in handicraft and other industries? 

What recent discoveries have been made regarding these people? 

Describe the industry of pottery among them. 

What reason would you assign for the extinction of the cliff-dwellers? 



The American Indian. 

Not many generations ago, where you now sit, circled with all that exalts and embel- 
lishes civilized life, the rank thistle nodded in the wind, and the wild fox dug his hole 
unscared. Here lived and loved another race of beings. Beneath the same sun that rolls 
over your heads, the Indian hunter pursued the panting deer; gazing in the same moon 
that smiles for you, the Indian lover wooed his dusky mate. Here the wigwam blaze 
beamed on the tender and helpless, the council fire glowed on the wise and daring. Now 
they dipped their noble limbs in your sedgy lakes, and now they paddled the light canoe 
along your rocky shores. Here they warred; the echoing whoop, the bloody grapple, the 
defying death-song, all were here; and when the tiger strife was over, here curled the 
smoke of peace. 

Here, too, they worshiped; and from many a dark bosom went up a pure prayer 
to the Great Spirit. He had not written his laws for them on tables of stone, but he had 
traced them on the tables of their hearts. The poor child of nature knew not the God of 
revelation, but the God of the universe he acknowledged in every thing around. He beheld 
him in the star that sunk in beauty behind his lonely dwelling; in the sacred orb that 
flamed on him from his mid-day throne ; in the flower that snapped in the morning breeze ; 
in the lofty pine, that defied a thousand whirlwinds ; in the timid warbler that never left 
its native grove ; in the fearless eagle whose untired pinion was wet in clouds ; in the worm 
that crawled at his feet ; and in his own matchless form, glowing with a spark of that 
Light, to whose mysterious source he bent, in humble, though blind adoration. 

And all this has passed away. Across the ocean came a pilgrim bark, bearing the seeds 
of life and death. The former were sown for you ; the latter sprang up in the path of the 
simple native. Two hundred years have changed the character of a great continent, and 
blotted forever from its face a whole peculiar people. Art has usurped the bowers of 
nature, and the children of education have been too powerful for the tribes of the ignorant. 
Here and there a stricken few remain ; but how unlike their bold, untamed, untamable 
progenitors ! The Indian of falcon glance and lion bearing, the theme of the touching 
ballad, the hero of the pathetic tale, is gone ! and his degraded offspring crawl upon the 
soil where he walked in majesty, to remind us how miserable is man when the foot of the 
conqueror is on his neck. 

As a race, they have withered from the land. Their arrows are broken, their springs 
are dried up, their cabins are in the dust. Their council-fire has long since gone out orr the 
shore, and their war-cry is fast dying to the untrodden West. Slowly and sadly they climb 
the distant mountains, and read their doom in the setting sun. They are shrinking before 
the mighty tide which is pressing them away; they must soon hear the roar of the last 
wave, which will settle over them forever. 

— Charles Sprague. 
137 



American Indian 




k^ kN ^^ kH ^^ kS U ki K^ kH tOI kN n tN K^ 




I. Origin. 

1. Name — Given by Columbus. 

2. Race — Probably mixture of 

European and Asiatic races. 

II. Personal Features. 

1. Hair — Long, black and 
straight. 

3. Beard — Scanty. 

3. Eyebrows — Heavy. 

4. Eyes — Sleepy and dull. 

5. Lips — Compressed. 

6. Cheek bones — High. 

7. Face — Broad. 

8. Hands and feet — Small and 

well proportioned. 

9. Stature — Varies. 

III. Dress. 

1. Skin. 

2. Bark. 

3. Woolen garment. 

4. Decorative dress. 

A. Necklaces. 

B. Earrings. 

C. Bracelets. 

D. Tattooing. 

E. Painting. 

IV. Food. 

1. Fruits. 

2. Corn. 

3. Wild rice. 

4. Roots and seed. 

5. Maple syrup. 

6. Tobacco., 

7. Fish, game, eggs. 

8. Beans and squashes. . 

V. Industries. 

1. Hunting. 

2. Fishing. 

3. Agriculture, 

4. Manufactures. 




TECUMSEH. 
A TYPICAE INDIAN. 

VI. Religion. 

1. Future life. 

2. Spirits. 

3. Virtue and bravery. 

4. Priest and medicine man. 

5. Sun worship. 

VII. Manufactures and 

Implements. 

1. Bows. 

2. Arrowheads. 

3. Pottery. 

4. Snowshoes. 

5. Stone pipes. 

6. Canoes. 

7. Blankets. 

8. Baskets. 

9. Fishhooks. 

10. Knives. 

11. Leather. 

12. Numerous other articles. 

VIII. Government. 

1. Divided into clans with chief. 

2. Confederation of tribes. 

3. Loose administrations. 

4. Women's rights limited. 

5. Man's rights supreme. 

6. Punishments severe. 

7. Slavery uncommon. 



138 



IX. Tribes and Races. 
Algonquins. Mohawks, 
Apaches. Mohicans. 
Arapahoes. Moki. 
Aztecs. Narragansetts. 
Carib. Natchez. 
Catawba. Navajoes. 
Cayuga. O jib ways. 
Cherokees. Onondaga. 
Cheyenne. Osages. 
Chickasaw. Ottawas. 
Choctaw. Patagonian. 
Comanches. Pequots. 

Cree. Pottawattamies. 

Creek. Pueblo. 

Delawares. Quichua. 

Eskimos. Sacs and Foxes. 

Fox. Seminoles. 

Huron. Senecas. 

Illinois. Shawnees. 

Inca. Shoshones. 

Iowa. Sioux. 

Iroquois. Toltec. 

Kickapoo. Tuscaroras. 

Maya. Utahs. 

Miami. Yakima. 

Modocs. Yumas. 

Mohave. Zufii. 

X. Indian Wars. 

1. Virginia, 1623-1624. 

2. Pequot, 1637. 

3. King Phillip's, 1675. 

. 4. Cherry and Wyoming Valley 
massacres, 1777. 

5. Miami Confederation wars, 

in Ohio, 1790-1795. 

6. Battle of Tippecanoe, 1811- 

1813. 

7. Creek and Seminole wars, 

1817. 

8. Black-Hawk War, 1837. 

9. Seminole War, 1835-1841. 

10. Modock War, 1872. 

11. Sioux War, 1876. 

12. Apache War, 1884-1886. 
XL Domestic Animals. 

1. Dog — Universally used. 

2. Turkey — Central America. 

3. Horses and cattle — None. 

4. Sheep — None. 
XII. Dwellings. 

1. Eskimo hut — Ice, stone, or 

turf. 

2. Wigwam — Poles and skins. 

3. Mexico hut — Twigs and leaves. 

4. Central America and Peru — 

Carved stone. 

5. New Mexico — Adobe and stone. 

6. Arizona — Clifif-dwellers. 



140 



XIII. Burial. 

1. Earth — Graves with relics. 

2. Platforms — In trees. 

3. Cliffs — Mummies. 

4. Caves. 5. Mounds. 

XIV. Education and Present 

Condition. 

1. Citizenship. 

A. Conditions of. 

(a) To waive all claims 
to public support. 

(b) Right to vote. 

2. Government Policy. 

A. To encourage education. 

B. To encourage land owner- 

ship. 

C. To make them self - sup- 

porting. 

3. Department of Indian Affairs. 

A. Oklahoma. 

B. Indian reservations. 

4. Educational Advancement and 

Professions. 

A. Higher institutions of 

learning. 

B. Indian schools. 

C. Practice of medicine and 

law. 

D. Publication of news- 

papers. 

E. Skill in arts and trades. 

F. Scholars and educators. • 

5. Intermarriage with whites. 

A. Advocated by some tribes. 

B. Opposed by others. 

C. In the past. 

(a) Mostly with Span- 
ish and French. 

D. At present. 

(a) Largely with the 
Negro race. 

E. Adopting customs of civ- 

ilization. 

(a) Mostly by the 
mixed breeds, 

6. Number of Indians. 

A. At time of discovery by 

Columbus. 

(a) East of Mississippi. 
River, estimated 
200,000. 

(b) California alone at 
time of gold discov- 
ery, 200,000. 

B. Present Indian popula- 

tion. 

(a) United States, 266,- 
760. 

(b) Canada, 107,978. 



Questions on the Indian. 

Who gave the Indians their name? Why? 1383. 

Was the turkey known to the Indians at the time of the discovery of 
America? 2940. 

Were horses known to the Indians in America at the time of its discovery by 
Columbus? 1334. 

Was timothy grass a native of America before Cokimbus's time? 3880. 
Tell what kind of houses the Mexican Indian builds. The Eskimo Indian. 
See illustration, 1383. 

In what countries did the Indians construct canals? Public highways? 

What race of Indians had a calendar in which a year consisted of 365 days, 
divided into eighteen months of twenty days each? 1741. 

What tribe of Indians issued books under the title of "Chilam Balam"? 

What was the population of the empire of the Incas in 1533, when it was 
conquered by the Spanish? 1371. 

What tribe of Indians embalmed their dead? 

What tribe of Indians domesticated bees? 1741. 

What is meant by Indian Summer and why so called? 1383. 

What are the differences between "Luke's Summer, Old Woman's Sum- 
mer, and Indian Summer" ? 

What Indian names were made famous by Longfellow? 1397. 

When and why was Indian Territory set apart for Indian reservations ? 1383. 

How may an Indian become a United States citizen and have the right 
to hold office? 

What is the difference between the Eskimos of North America and those of 
Siberia ? 

What is the policy of the government in dealing with the Indians? 

Name ten important Indian wars. See outline. 

Name five methods of Indian burial. See outline. 

What race of Indians taught the art of reading and writing, maintained 
temples, and sacrificed human beings to their gods? 301. 

What tribe of Indians had a priesthood and educated their young for the 
priesthood ? 

What race of Indians made sun worship their state religion? 2780. 

How did the Indians make their pipes? 3330. 

From what did the Indians make their arrowheads? 154. 

What can you say about the stone implements of the American 
Indians? 3749. 

What can you say about the basket work of American Indians ? 343. 

Was the boomerang invented by the Indians? 337. 

What is the Indian population at present? See outline. 

How and of what material were the houses or dwellings constructed? 
Outline. 

Tell for what each of these Indian chiefs were noted : Joseph Brant, King 
Philip, Massasoit, Powhatan, Pontiac, Black Hawk, Geronimo, Sitting Bull, 
Tecumseh, Osceola. 

Name some of the ways in which the Indians decorated their dress and per- 
son. See outline. 

Mention eight articles of food used by the Indian. See outline. 

What can you say about the Indians' love for the dog? 1383. 

Describe the personal features of the Indian. See outline. 

141 




BIOGRAPHY is properly a department of literature. It includes autobiog- 
raphy, which is the branch of biography that is written by the subject 
himself. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia contains many thousands 
of biographies, including subjects of early history as well as those of the most 
recent time. These biographies are more than mere statements of facts ; they 
expand into the fields of criticism, literature, history, and philosophy. The 
treatment is such that this department at once becomes invaluable and indis- 
pensable to students. 

What an influence for good a great character really is ! Such a character, 
the entity and individuality of the possessor, shining from every window of 
the soul, takes a firm hold upon the lives with which it comes in contact. It is 
a guiding and molding influence upon others, inspiring to loftier thoughts and 
nobler deeds. 

The biographies treat of both men and women. Indeed, The New 
Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is the pioneer among reference books in 
publishing portraits and biographies of famous women. It may be consulted 
with great satisfaction along this line and answers the question, Who is whof 
The following are among the subjects of biographies contained in this work on 

Celebrated Women. 



Adams, Maude, 
Addams, Jane, 
Alcott, Louise May, 
Alexandria, Queen, 
Anne, Queen, 
Anthony, Susan B., 
Austen, Jane, 
Barton, Clara, 



Beatrice Portinari, 
Bernhardt, Rosine, 
Bonheur, Rosa, 
Bremer, Fredrika, 
Bronte, Charlotte, 
Browning, Elizabeth B., 
Burdette-Coutts, Angela, 
Cary, Alice and Phoebe, 

142 



Catharine II., 
Catharine de Medici, 
Catherwood, Mary Hartwell, 
Cenci, Beatrice, 
Christina, Queen, 
Cleopatra, 
Corday, Charlotte, 
Darling, Grace, 



Dido, Queen, Isabella I., Roland, Marie Jeanne, 

Eddy, Mary B. G., Jezebel, Queen, Sand, George, 

Eliot, George, Joan of Arc, Sappho, 

Elizabeth, Queen, Josephine, Queen, Stael-Holstein, Mme. de, 

Elizabeth (Carman Sylvia), Lind, Jenny, Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 

Eugenie, Queen, Maria Theresa, Victoria, Queen, 

Gould, Helen, Marie Antoinette, Ward, Mary, 

Grey, Lady Jane, Mary, Queen of Scots, Washington, Mary, 

Helen of Troy, Nightingale, Florence, Wilcox, Ella Wheeler, 

Heloise (see Abelard), Nordica, Wilhelmina, Queen, 

Howe, Julia Ward, Patti, Adelina, Willard, Frances E., 

Hypatia, Pocahontas, Zenobia, Septimia. 



Alphabetical List of Famous People. 

Abolitionists — Fremont, Garrison, Phillips, Whittier, Wilberforce. 

Actors — Adams, Bernhardt, Booth, Field, Garrick, Irving, Mansfield, 
Marlowe. 

Alchemists — Agrippa, Bacon, Lavoisier, Paracelsus, Priestley. 

Artists — Copley, Giotto, Ruysdael, Schnorr, Vinci, West. 

Astronomers — Brahe, Halley, Herschel, Kepler, Laplace, Newton, Ptolemy. 

Authors — Andersen, Bacon, Bryant, Cervantes, Chaucer, Dante, Dickens, 
Goethe, Homer, Irving, Luther, Milton, Schiller, Shakespeare, Tennyson, 
Whittier, Wilcox. 

Aviators — ^Langley, Lilienthal, Santos-Dumont, Wright, Zeppelin. 

Bible Characters — Abraham, Adam, David, Jeremiah, Jesus, Job, Joshua, 
Mary, Moses, Noah, Paul, Solomon. 

Botanists — Burbank, Engelmann, Gray, Humboldt, Huxley, Linnaeus, 
Tyndall. 

Cartoonists — Cruickshank, McCutcheon, Nast, Opper. 

Chemists — Achard, Cavendish, Curie, Dalton, Faraday, Pasteur, Priestley. 

Colonists — Balboa, Champlain, De Soto, Drake, Hudson, Raleigh. 

Confederate Statesmen — Benjamin, Breckenridge, Davis, Stephens, Yancey. 

Discoverers — Columbus, Cook, Cortez, Drake, Emin Pasha, Livingstone, 
Magellan, Nansen, Peary, Stanley. 

Divines — Abbott, Beecher, Gunsaulus, Hillis, Moody, Parker. 

Dramatists — Aeschylus, Bjornson, Dumas, Ibsen, Jonson, Lessing, Schiller, 
Sudermann. 

Electricians — Ampere, Bell, Edison, Marconi, Ohm, Roentgen, Siemens. 

Emperors — Caesar, Charlemagne, Francis Joseph, Maximilian I., Nicholas 
II., William I. 

Engineers — Drummond, Fads, Eiffel, Ericsson, Lesseps, Roebling, Waring. 

English Statesmen — Balfour, Burke, Chamberlain, Gladstone, Pitt, Salisbury. 

Essayists — Addison, Carlyle, Emerson, Lessing, Locke, Voltaire. 

Fathers of the Church — Athanasius, Boniface, Gregory, Irenaeus, Origen, 
Polycarp. 

Federal Statesmen — Blaine, Douglas, Lincoln, Seward, Sumner. 

Financiers — Carnegie, Morgan, Sage, Rockefeller, Rothschild, Vanderbilt. 

Historians — Bancroft, Bryce, Eggleston, Gibbon, Guizot, Herodotus, von 
Hoist, Hume, Macaulay, Parkman, Plutarch. 

Humorists — Clemens, Harte, Nye, Shaw, Stockton, Ward. 

Inventors — Bell, Davy, Edison, McCormick, Marconi, Maxim, Mergenthaler, 
Siemens, Tesla, Whitney. 

Journalists — Bennett, Dana, Franklin, Greeley, Hearst, Medill, Pulitzer, 
Watterson, Young. 

Kings— Alexander, Charles V., Christian IX., Edward VII., George III., 
Henry VIII. 

10 143 



Lawyers — Blackstone, Choate, Confucius, Evarts, Lycurgus, Moses, Solon, 
Webster. 

Librarians — Dewey, Poole, Spofford. 

Logicians — Aristotle, Hegel, Kant, Leibnitz, Mill, Zeno. 

Mathematicians — Archimedes, Gunter, Legendre, Newton, Pythagoras, 
Thomson. 

Merchants — Astor, East India Companies, Girard, Hudson's Bay Company, 
Field, Law, Wanamaker. 

Missionaries — Elliot, Jesuits, Livingstone, Moffat, Xavier. 

Musicians — Abt, Beethoven, Bull, Lind, Liszt, Mendelssohn, Mozart, 
Paderewski, Strauss, Wagner. 

Naturalists — Agassiz, Audubon, Cuvier, Darwin, Haeckel. 

Naval Commanders — Dewey, Farragut, Jones, Nelson, Themistocles, Togo, 
Tromp. 

Novelists — Andersen, Balzac, Bjornson, Boccaccio, Cooper, Daudet, Dumas, 
Ebers, Freytag, Howells, Stevenson, Tolstoi. 

Orators — Antiphon, Bryan, Burke, Cicero, Demosthenes, Erskine, ^Henry, 
Ingersoll, Phillips, Webster. 

Painters — Angelo, Burne-Jones, Correggio, Menzel, Murillo, Raphael, 
Rembrandt, Rubens, Sargent, Titian, Whistler. 

Patriots — Bozzaris, Bruce, Egmont, Joan of Arc, Kosciusko, Philopoemen, 
Revere, Tell, Winkelried. 

Philanthropists — Childs, Cooper, Durant, Girard, Hirsch, Peabody. 

Philosophers — Anaxagoras, Edwards, Fichte, Galileo, Leibnitz, Locke, 
Ptolemy, Schelling, Spinoza, Thales, Zeno. 

Physicians — Hahnemann, Llarvey, Koch, Lorenz, Pasteur, Senn, Virchow. 

Physicists — Archimedes, Fahrenheit, Helmholtz, Tyndall, Torricelli. 

Poets — Browning, Bryant, Burns, Byron, Chaucer, Dryden, Euripides, 
Goldsmith, Heine, Longfellow, Lowell, Uhland, Whittier, Wordsworth. 

Political Economists — Bagehot, Cobden, Ely, Fawcett, Franklin, Mill. 

Preachers — Chrysostom, Kempis, Moody, Wesley, Wycliffe, Xavier. 

Presidents — (See articles under their names). 

Printers — Caxton, Coster, Elzevir, Faust, Gutenberg. 

Psychologists — Aristotle, Berkeley, Cousin, Hegel, Herbart, Hume. 

Queens — Catharine, Cleopatra, Elizabeth, Irene, Isabella, Maria Theresa, 
Victoria. 

Reformers — Anthony, Blackwell, Bloomer, Mott, Stanton. 

Scientists — Agassiz, Buffon, Bunsen, Cuvier, Dalton, Liebig. 

Sculptors — Bartholdi, Donatello, Di.irer, Greenough, Hosmer, Houdon, 
Phidias, Powers, Raphael, Ranch, Saint Gaudens, Thompson, Thorwaldsen, 
Vinci. 

Singers — De Reszke, Lind, Nordica, Patti, Sankey, Sembrich, Sontag, 

Socialists — Debs, Fourier, Marx, Owen. 

Social Reformers — Adams, Adler, Debs, Gerry. 

Soldiers — Alexander, Bliicher, Caesar, Cromwell, Frederick the Great, 
Grant, Hannibal, Lee, Washington, Wellington. 

Statesmen — Bismarck, Blaine, Bolingbroke, Davis, Everett, Gladstone, 
Laurier, Lincoln, Monroe, Roosevelt. 

Sufifragists — Anthony, Bloomer, Lockwood, Mott, Stanton. 

Teachers — Ascham, Eliot, Erasmus, Froebel, Mann, Pestalozzi, Quintilian. 

Temperance Workers — Bidwell, Dow, Fish, Gough, Saint John, Willard. 

Theologians — Beecher, Campbell, Huss, Luther, Walther, Zwingli. 

Warriors — Alfred the Great, Charlemagne, Gustavus Adolphus, Napoleon, 
Timur, Washington, Wallenstein, Xeniphon. 

Writers, American — Cooper, Emerson, Holmes, Lowell, Motley, Roosevelt, 
Thoreau. 

144 



Writers, Canadian — Bourinot, Bryce, Campbell, Carman, Drummond, Gait, 
Parker, Smith. 

Writers, English — Ascham, Bunyan, Carlyle, Coleridge, Dryden, Gray, 
Ruskin. 

Zoologists — Agassiz, Cuvier, Dana, Darwin, Haeckel, Linnaeus, Spencer, 
Weismann. v 



296. 



Questions on Biography. 

What is biography? Distinguish between biography and autobiography. 



What benefits are derived from the study of great lives? 

Name six prominent American statesmen and six Canadian statesmen. 

Who reigned longest of the English sovereigns? 932. 

To whom do the following titles belong: "The Pen of the Revolution," 
"The Expounder of the Constitution," "The Father of His Country," "The 
Pacificator," and "The Hero of Quebeck" 

Give a list of noted artists and their best paintings. 

Mention some of the renowned poets of the present age. 

Write a brief sketch of the life of Shakespeare. 

What prominence did G. M. Adams, Alexander McKenzie, Gold win Smith, 
and Joseph Howe hold in Canadian literature? 

State some notable feature connected with the life of Pasteur, Marconi, 
Sampson, Santa Anna, Aali Pasha, Montcalm, Gladstone, Frances E. Willard, 
Milton, and Socrates. 

Contrast the life of Oueen Elizabeth with that of Mary, Queen of Scots. 



Death of Schiller. 

'Tis said, when Schiller's death drew nigh, 
The wish possessed his mighty mind, 

To wander forth wherever lie 

The homes and haunts of humankind. 

Then strayed the poet, in his dreams, 
By Rome and Egypt's ancient graves ; 

Went up the New World's forest streams, 
Stood in the Hindoo's temple-caves. 

Walked with the Pawnee, fierce and stark. 
The bearded Tartar, 'midst his herds. 

The peering Chinese, and the dark 
False Malay uttering gentle words. 

How could he rest? even then he trod 
The threshold of the world unknown; 

Already, from the seat of God, 
A ray upon his garments shone ; — 

Shone and awoke that strong desire 

For love and knowledge reached not here, 

Till death set free his soul of fire, 
To plunge into its fitting sphere. 

Then— who shall tell how deep, how bright, 
The abyss of glory opened round? 

How thought and feeling flowed like light. 
Through ranks of being without bound? 

— Bryant. 

145 



Champlain. 



I. Early Life. 

1. Born in Brouage, France, in 1567, of French Catholic parents. 

2. Son of a ship captain. 

3. Carefully trained in principles of navigation and cartography. 

4. Entered army when young and became a quartermaster of cavalry. 

5. Uncle was pilot general of Spanish fleets. 

II. Public Career. 

1595 — Distinguished himself in war against Spain, attracting the at- 
tention of Henry IV. 
1599 — Took command of Saint Julien and sailed to West Indies, re- 
maining two years and a half and then returning by way of 
the Isthmus of Panama. 
Wrote records of voyage, made views and charts, and proposed 
plan for channeling the Isthmus. 

1603-04 — First two voyages to Canada. 
Sailed up Saint Lawrence. 

Explored and mapped coast as far as Cape Cod, 
Discovered lakes Champlain, Huron, and Erie. 




1608 — Founded Quebec. 
Erected houses. 
Sowed grain. 
Developed fur trade. 
SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN. Joined Hurons and Algonquins. 

1609 — Fought against Iroquois. 

1610 — Returned to France and married Mademoiselle Helene Boule, 

a Protestant girl, who became a Ursuline nun after his death. 

1611 —Planted settlement at Montreal. 
1612-29 — Governor of Canada. 

Defeated by Britains and carried captive to England. 

1632 —Restored to liberty. 

1633 — Returned to Canada. 

1635 — Died in Quebec on Christmas. 

III. Aims. 

1. Christianize the natives. 

2. Explore new lands. 

3. Discover shorter route to China. 

IV. Characteristics. 

1. Bold and fearless. 

2. Farseeing and resourceful. 

3. Full of tact in his dealings. 

4. A born commander. 

5. Of adventurous spirit. 

6. "His purse was small, his merit great." 

7. Known as the "Father of New France." 



146 



Test Questions on Champlain. 

Of what nationality was Champlain? 530, 
Tell all you can about his early life. 
How did he distinguish himself at an early age? 

Of whom did he receive a commission to make settlements in America? 
How long did he remain in the West Indies? 

Of what city of Canada is he the founder? How did he assist the settlers? 
With what success did he meet in Christianizing the Indians? 
Describe his first two expeditions to Canada. 
By what means is his name perpetuated? 

When and whom did he marry? What did his widow become after his 
death? 

What exalted position did he hold in Canada? 

Why was he called the "Father of New France" ? 

For what reason was he taken captive to England? Was he ever liberated? 

Tell which of his characteristics are worthy of patterning. 

Where and at what age did he die ? 



Columbus. 

How in God's name did Columbus get over 

Is a pure wonder to me, I protest, 
Cabot, and Raleigh too, that well-read rover, 
Frobisher, Champlain, Drake, and the rest. 

Bad enough all the same, 

For them that after came, 

But, in great Heaven's name, 

How he should ever think 

That on the other brink 
Of this wild waste terra finna should be, 
Is a pure wonder, I must say, to me. 

How a man ever should hope to get thither. 

E'en if he knew that there was another side ; 
But to suppose he should come any whither, 
Saihng straight on into chaos untried. 

In spite of the motion 

Across the whole ocean, 

To stick to the notion 

That in some nook or bend 

Of a sea without end 
He should find North and South America, 
Was a pure madness, indeed I must say, to me. 

What if wise men had, as far back as Ptolemy, 

Judged that the earth like an orange was round. 
None of them ever said, "Come along, follow me. 
Sail to the West, and the East will be found. 

Many a day before 

Ever they'd come ashore, 

From the San Salvador, 

Sadder and wiser men 

They'd have turned back again ; 
And that he did not, but did cross the sea, 
Is a pure wonder, I must say, to me. _^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ 



147 



Washington. 



Birthday, Feb. 32, 1733. 
Death, Dec. U, 1799. 
Parents. 

Augustine Washington. 

Mary Ball (3nd wife). 




GEORGE WASHINGTON. 



Education. 

Elementary subjects. 
Mathematics, 
Profession. 
Surveyor. 

Adjutant general (1751). 
Lieutenant colonel (1754). 
Aid-de-camp to Braddock 
(1755). 
Revolution. 

Commander in chief. 
President. 

Two terms (1789-1797). 
Events. 

1. Admission of Ky., 

Tenn. 
3. Federal assumption of 

debts. 
3. Indian wars in Northwest 
Territory. 



Vt., 



4. Founding of Washington. 

5. Establishment of first 

U. S. Bank (1791). 

6. Whisky Insurrection 

(1794). 

7. National mint established 

in Philadelphia. 

8. Adjustment of important 

treaties with other coun- 
tries. 

9. Jay's Treaty with Eng- 

land ratified (1796). 
10. Naturalization changed to 
five years (1796). 
Married. 

Martha Custis (widow), 1759. 
Childless. 

Grandchildren of widow 
(adopted two). 
Residence. 

Mount Vernon — 
Planter 16 years. 
Owned 135 slaves. 
Magistrate. 

Member of Legislature, 
First and Second Continental 
Congresses. 
Character and appearance. 
Dignified. 
Thoughtful. 
Studious. 

"Towered above party strife." 
"First in war, first in peace, first 
in the hearts of his country- 
men." 
Burial. 

Mount Vernon. 



Where may the wearied eye repose 

When gazing on the great, 
Where neither guilty glory glows 

Nor despicable state? 
Yes, — one, the first, the last, the best, 

The Cincinnatus of the West, 
Whom envy dared not hate. 

Bequeathed the name of Washington 

To make men blush there was but one. 

— Lord Byron. 
148 ■ 



Questions on Washington. 

Who was Washington's grandfather and from what country was he a 
native ? 

When did Washington's father die? How old was George at the time? 

Who was the mother of George Washington ? 

Who was the wife of George Washington? When was she born? 

Why is Washington and Lee University so named ? 

What can you say about Washington's memorial arch in New York City? 

Where is Washington's Elm located and for what noted? 

When did the popular movement for a national memorial for Washington 
begin ? 

What is the height of the Washington monument at Washington, D. C.? 
When was the cornerstone laid? When was it dedicated? What did it cost? 
Who selected the site of the Washington monument? 

How many slaves did Washington keep? When were they emancipated and 
how? 

Did Washington have any children? How many children did he adopt? 

To what lodges did he belong? 

What were the dying words of Washington ? 3S38. 

What did Washington say on declining military escort on the occasion of his 
inauguration in 1789? 3236. 

What does Washington say about bad company and self-esteem? 3239, 

Give a quotation from Washington on the justice of his country. 3248. 

Name five important events that occurred during Washington's adminis- 
tration. 

What can you say about his dignity and self-control ? 

In what battle did Washington have two horses shot under him? 

In what year did Washington issue his farewell address? Describe his per- 
sonal appearance. 

What eulogy did Peter Cooper pass upon Lincoln and Washington? 3236, 

What can you say about the domestic life of Washington? 

What is said of Mrs. Washington in regard to caring for sick soldiers? 

When did Mrs. Washington die? Did she like official life? What did she 
do with Washington's love letters? What can you say about her dress? 

From whom did Washington receive the estate at Mount Vernon ? What was 
the date of his marriage ? 

What can you say of Washington as a statesman and a lawyer? 



The Twenty-Second of February. 

Pale is the February sky, For this chill season now again 
And brief the mid-day's sunny hours; Brings, in its annual round, the morn 

The wind-swept forest seems to sigh When, greatest of the sons of men. 
For the sweet time of leaves and flowers. Our glorious Washington was born ! 

Yet has no month a prouder day, Amid the wreck of thrones shall live. 

Not even when the summer broods Unmarred, undimmed, our hero's_ fame ; 

O'er meadows in their fresh array. And years succeeding years shall give 

Or Autumn tints the glowing woods. Increase of honors to his name. 

— Bryant. 

149 



Napoleon. 




Birth. 

I. Born at Ajaccio, island of Corsica, Aug. 15, 1769 ; died at Saint Helena, 

May 5, 1831. 
Parents. 

1. Father, Charles Bonaparte; mother, Letizia Ramolino. 
Education. 

1. Military school at Brienne, as a pensioner to the king, five years. 

2. Military school at Paris, received commission, lieutenant of artillery, in 

1785. 
Marriage. 

1. March 9, 1796, married Josephine Beauharnais; no children. 

2. April 2, 1810, divorced Josephine ; married Marie Louise of Austria ; one 

son born March 20, 1811, known as Napoleon II. 
Public Life. 

1. Stationed at Valence during French Revolution; at- 
tempted to conquer the Corsican cities for -France. 

2. Lieutenant colonel of artillery in 1793. 

3. Captured Toulon from British; made brigadier gen- 
eral of artillery in 1784. 

4. In 1785, given command of army of interior. 

a. French forces, 40,000 ; Austrians and Sardin- 
ians, 75,000. 

b. Captured the Appenines by defeating Austrians 
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. ^^ Montenotte. 

c. Took all Northern Italy after Battle of Lodi, May 10, 1796 ; required 

the Pope to cede part of his dominion to France. 

d. Defeated Austrians at Bassano, Roveredo, Rivoli, and other points, 

compelling Austria to make peace. 

e. Peace treaties with Modena, Parma, and Naples ; treaty with Aus- 

tria gave Lombardy to Netherlands and Ionia to France. 

5. Dire rory sent Napoleon to Africa in 1798. 

a. Reduced Malta en route ; July 1st, landed at Alexandria. 

b. July 4th, reduced Alexandria ; captured Cairo July 24th, winning the 

Battle of the Pyramids. 

c. Overran all Egypt and most of Palestine. 

d. Defeated at Acre and fleet was destroyed in the Bay of Aboukir by 

Nelson, July 25th. 

e. Nearly annihilated the Turkish army at Aboukir. 

f. Left Egyptian army with General Kleber and returned to France to 

help restore order and confidence. 

6. Abolished the Directory Nov. 9, 1799. 

7. Caused the adoption of a new constitution. 
a. This provided for three consuls. 

A. First Consul, Napoleon. 

B. Second Consul, Cambaceres. 

C. Third Consul, Lebrun. 

8. Napoleon and Josephine occupied the palace of the kings in the Tuileries. 

9. Constructed highways and canals; reorganized the army; invented the 

metric system. 
10. In 1800 went by way of the Great Saint Bernard pass and defeated 
the Austrians at Marengo. ' 

II. Won the Battle of Hohenlinden. 

150 



12. By the Peace of Luneville, acquired all Italy. 

13. Subsequent treaties were made with Portugal, Spain, Bavaria, Naples, 

Turkey, and Russia. 

14. In 1803 forced Great Britain into the Treaty of Amiens. 

15. He reformed local government. 

a. Established schools. 

b. Revised the code of laws. 

c. Founded the Bank of France. 

d. Established universities. 

e. Defined powers of the church. 

f. Encouraged industrial arts and sciences. 

16. In 1802, made Consul for life; in May, 1804, crowned Emperor; Jose- 

phine made Empress of France. 

17. May 26, 1805, he was crowned King of Italy; his stepson, Eugene Beau- 

harnais, became his viceroy. 

18. In 1805 Napoleon invaded Germany, defeated a large army at Ulm, 

captured Vienna, and, Dec. 2d, won the Battle of Austerlitz. 
a. His brother Joseph was made King of Naples ; Louis, King of Hol- 
land. 

19. Defeated Prussians and Russians at Jena and captured Berlin. 

a. Made his brother Jerome King of Westphalia. 

20. In June, 1807, defeated the Russians at Friedland. 

21. Formed compact with Emperor Alexander I. 

a. By which Russia took Finland and part of Prussian Poland. 

b. King of Prussia kept one-half of his former dominions. 

22. Napoleon issued his "Milan Decree," closing ports of Europe. 

23. English army defeated him in Portugal. 

24. In 1807 he defeated the Portuguese and English and made his brother 

Joseph King of Spain. His brother-in-law, Murat, became King 
of Naples. 

25. Austria declared war against Napoleon in 1809. 

26. Napoleon was defeated at Aspern and Esslingen. 

27. July 6, crushed opposing forces completely at Wagram. Francis Joseph 

ceded France more territory. 

28. Height of his power in 1810 and 1811. 

,29. Married Marie Louise of Austria in 1810; son born in 1811. 

30. Napoleon declared war against Russia in 1812. 

a. Defeated Russians at Borodino ; reached Moscow. 

b. Inglorious retreat. 

31. Prussia, Spain, Russia, Great Britain and Sweden formed an alliance 

against him ; Napoleon defeated them at Liitzen May 2, 1813. 

a. Again defeated the united armies at Bautzen and Dresden. 

b. Napoleon withdrew to Leipsic and was defeated in the "Battle of 

Nations;" Oct. 16, 18 and 19. 

32. In 1814, defeated Bliicher itf four engagements. 

33. March 30, 1814, allied armies captured Paris. 



151 



a. April 5, 1814, abdicated at Fontainebleau. 

A. Retained title of Emperor, 

B. Sovereignty of Isle of Elba. 

C. Louis XVIII. restored to throne of France. 

34. After ten months at Elba, Napoleon returned to Ere jus. Louis XVIII. 

fled. 

35. Again a powerful army surrounded him. 

36. The allied armies began a march at once upon France. 

a. He defeated Bliicher at Ligny, June 16. 

b. Lost the Battle of Waterloo. 

A. Surrendered to Captain Maitland of British man-of-war. 

B. Kept a prisoner for life at Saint Helena, under charge of Sir 
LIudson Lowe. 

37. Last words, "Head of the army." 
Buried. 

1. On the Island of Saint Helena for twenty years. 

2. Remains removed to France and placed in a magnificent tomb in the 

Hotel des Invalides, Dec. 15, 1840. 



Questions on Napoleon. 

Why did Napoleon divorce Josephine and marry Marie Louise? 1895. 

Who invented the metric system? See outline. 

What is known as the "Battle of Nations" ? 1896. 

Who issued the famous "Milan Decree"? See outline. 

What defeated Napoleon on his Russian campaign? 

From what you know of Napoleon, was his life a success? 

Nearly one hundred years ago Napoleon said, "The day will come when 
Europe, and especially England, will lament that they did not let me conquer those 
northern barbarians" (speaking of Russia). Has England had cause recently 
to remember it? 



Napoleon Bonaparte. 

He is fallen ! _ We may now pause before that splendid prodigy, tvhich towered among 
us like some ancient ruin, whose frown terrified the glance its magnificence attracted. 
Grand, gloom}', and peculiar, he sat upon the throne, a sceptred hermit, wrapt in the soli- 
tude of his own originality. A mind, bold, independent, and decisive, — a will despotic 
in its dictates — an energy that distanced expedition, and a conscience pliable to every 
touch of interest, marked the outline of this extraordinary character — the most extraordi- 
nary, perhaps, that, in the annals of this world, ever rose, or reigned, or fell. 

Flung into life in the_ midst of a revolution that quickened every energy of a people 
who acknowledge no superior, he commenced his course, a stranger by birth, and a scholar 
by charity! With no friend but his sword, and no fortune but his talents, he rushed into 
the lists where rank and wealth and genius had arrayed themselves, and competition fled 
from him as from the glance of destiny. He knew no motive but interest — he acknowl- 
edged no criterion but success — he worshipped no God but ambition, and, with an Eastern 
devotion, he knelt at the shrine of his idolatry. 

—Charles Phillips. 

159 



Franklin. 




Birth. 

1. Boston, Mass., Jan. 17, 1706 ; died in Philadelphia, Pa., April 19, 1790. 

2. The fifteenth of seventeen children. 
Parents. 

1. Emigrated to America in 1685; father's name, 
Josiah Franklin; tallow chandler and soap 
boiler. 

Education. 

1. Early education limited ; apprenticed as printer 
to his brother ; went to Philadelphia when he 
was seventeen, landed with $1.25; when 21 
had saved enough to buy the "Pennsylvania 
Gazette" ; loved books and was a versatile 
reader ; granted academic degrees by Ox- ■ 

BENjAMm frankun!'^' ^°^^ ^"^ Edinborough ; elected member of 

Royal Society of England. 
Marriage. 

1, To Deborah Reed, when 22 years of age. 
Public Life. 

1. Deputy general of British colonies in 1753. 

2. Member of Albany convention (1754). 

3. Agent of Pennsylvania in England, in 1757-62 ; again from 1764 until the 

Revolution. 

4. Presented the first petition of the American Congress to King of England. 

5. Elected a member of Congress on return to America. 

6. Favored the Declaration of Independence. 

7. Commissioner plenipotentiary to France in 1776 ; obtained large loans 

and other concessions ; concluded an alliance with France ; later 
made a treaty with England; still later a commercial treaty with 
Prussia. 

8. Chosen President of Pennsylvania in 1785. 

9. Delegate to the Federal Convention, in 1787, making the Constitution. 
Inventions. 

1. Regarding the theory of positive and negative electricity. 

2. Electricity and lightning are identical. 

3. Lightning rod, or conductor. 
Writings. 

1. Poor Richard's Almanac — Printed for 25 years (1732-57). 

2. Papers on scientific subjects, political economy, and antislavery. 

3. Autobiography incomplete at death 
Character. 

1. Noble, frugal, honest. 
Burial. 

1. With his wife in the yard of Christ Church, Fifth and Arch streets, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

153 



Questions on Franklin, 

Is the epitaph Franklin wrote engraved on his monument? 1056. 

Is the plain marble slab erect or horizontal on Franklin's grave ? 

How did Franklin prove electricity and lightning to be identical? 

Why do children Hke to read anything Benjamin Franklin wrote? Which of 
his writings is read extensively in schools? 1056. 

Whom did Franklin marry? When? 

Write two hundred words on the subject, "The Service of Benjamin Frank- 
lin to His Country." 



The Way to Wealth. 

From Poor Richard's Almanac. 

I have read that nothing gives an author so great pleasure as to find his words 
respectfully quoted by others. Judge, then, how much I must have been gratified by an 
accident I am going to relate to you. I stopped my horse lately where a great number 
of people were collected at an auction of merchants' goods. The hour of the sale not being 
come, they were conversing on the badness of the times ; and one of the company called 
to a plain, clean old man with white locks : "Pray, Father Abraham, what think you of 
the times? Will not these heavy taxes quite ruin the country? How shall we ever be 
able to pay them? What would you advise us to do?" Father Abraham stood up and 
rephed : "If you would have my advice, I will give it you in short ; for A word to the 
wise is enough, as Poor Richard says." They joined in desiring him to speak his mind, 
and gathering round him he proceeded as follows : 

"Friends," said he, "the taxes are indeed very heavy, and if those laid on by the gov- 
ernment were the only ones we had to pay, we might more easily discharge them, but we 
have many others and much more grievous to some of us. We are taxed twice as much 
by our idleness, three times as much by our pride, and four times as much by our follj^ 
and from these taxes the commissioners cannot ease or deliver us by allowing an abate- 
ment. However, let us hearken to good advice, and something may be done for us ; God 
helps them that help themselves, as Poor Richard says. 

"It would be thought a hard government that should tax its people one-tenth part of 
their time, to be employed in its service, but idleness taxes many of us much more ; sloth, 
by bringing on diseases, absolutely shortens life. Sloth, like rust, consumes faster than 
labor zvears, while the used key is always bright, as Poor Richard says. But dost thou 
love life, then do not squander time, for that is the stuff life is made of, as Poor Richard 
says. How much more than is necessary do we spend in sleep, forgetting that The sleeping 
fox catches no poultry, and that There will be sleeping enough in the grave, as Poor Rich- 
ard says. 

"If 'time be of all things the most precious, zvasting time must be, as Poor Richard 
says, the greatest prodigality, since, as he elsewhere tells us, Lost time is never found again, 
and what we call time enough always proves little enough. Let us then up and be doing, 
and doing to the purpose; so by diligence shall we do more with less perplexity. Sloth 
makes all things diMcult, but industry all things easy; and He that riseth late must trot 
all day, and shall scarce overtake his business at night; while Laziness travels so slozvly 
that Poverty soon overtakes him. Drive thy business, let not that drive thee ; and Early 
to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, tvcalthy, and wise, as Poor Richard says. 

"So what signifies wishing and hoping for better times ; we may make these times 
better if we bestir ourselves. Industry need not wish, and he that lives upon hopes will 
die fasting. There are no gains without pains; then help hands, for I have no lands; or 
if I have they are smartly taxed. He that hath a trade hath an estate, and he that hath 
a calling hath an office of profit and honor, as Poor Richard says ; but then the trade must 
be worked at and the calling followed, or neither the estate nor the office will enable us to 
pay our taxes. If we are industrious we shall never starve, for At the working man's 
house hunger looks in but dares not enter. Nor will the bailiff nor the constable enter, for 
Industry pays debts, while despair increaseth them. What though you have found no 
treasure, nor has any rich relation left you a legacy, Diligence is the mother of good luck, 
and God gives all things to industry. Then plough deep while sluggards sleep, and you 
shall have corn to sell and to keep. Work while it is called to-day, for you know not how 
much you may be hindered to-morrow. One to-day is worth two to-morrows, as Poor Rich- 
ard says." 

154 




Shakespeare. 

Birth. 

1. Born in Stratford-on-Avon, England, April 23, 1564; died April 23, 1616. 
Parents. 

1. John Shakespeare and Mary Arden. Family 
consisted of four sons and four daughters. 
William was the third child. 

2. His parents had very little education; not 
financially well to do. 

Education. 

1. Attended grammar school at Stratford; his 
father failed financially and William was 
taken from school and apprenticed to a 
butcher ; worked as a lawyer's clerk a short 

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. time. 

Marriage. 

1. At the age of eighteen, Anne Hathaway, who was twenty-six years old. 

a. One son and two daughters were born : Susanna, Judith, and Hamnet. 

2. In 1586 took up residence in London ; engaged as player and dramatist ; 

rose rapidly. 

3. More eminent as a playwright than as an actor. 
Character. 

1. Henry Chettle's apology for a criticism: "I- am as sorry as if the originall 

fault beene my fault, because myself have scene his demeanor no less 
civill than his exclent in the quality he professes : besides, divers of 
worship have reported his uprightness of dealing which argues his 
honesty, and his felicitous grace in writing that approves his art." 
Writings. 

^ 1. First Class. 

a. Historical. 

A. Henry VI., Richard II., Richard III., King John, Henry IV., 
Henry V., and Henry VIII. 

2. Second Class. 

a. Semi-historical. 

A. Titus Androniciis, Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, Julius Caesar, 
Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus, and Cymheline. 

3. Third Class. 

a. Fictitious. 

A. Love's Labor Lost, Comedy of Errors, Tzvo Gentlemen of 
Verona, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Merchant of 
Venice, Romeo and Juliet, Much Ado About Nothing, 
Twelfth Night, As You Like It, Taming of the Shrew, Peri- 
cles, Merry Wives of Windsor, Measure for Measure, All's 
Well That Ends Well, Timon of Athens, Troilus and Cres- 
sida, Othello, Winter's Tale, and The Tempest. 
Friends and Contemporaries. 

1. Queen Elizabeth, James I., Drayton, Ben Jonson, Francis Bacon. 
Burial. 

1. In chancel of Stratford church. 

155 



2. Inscription on tombstone : 

Good friend for Jesus sake forbeare 
To digg the dust enclosed heare : 
Bleste be the man that spares these stones, 
And curst be he who moves my bones. 

This prevents a removal of the remains to Westminster Abbey. 



Questions on Shakespeare. 

How did Shakespeare happen to go to London to live? 2603. 

What story is told of how he contracted the fever of which he died? 

Was he good looking ? Large or small ? 

How did Shakespeare get the style and title Gentleman f 

What was the effect of his Rape of Lucrecef 

What German writer is often compared to Shakespeare? 1159. 

Mention ten English contemporary writers of Shakespeare. 919. 

Speak of his position or rank as a dramatist. 826. 



The Shakespeare Ode. 

Then Shakespeare rose ! 
Across the trembling strings 
His daring hand he flings, 
And lo ! a new creation glows ! 
There, clustering round, submissive to his will, 
Fate's vassal train his high commands fulfill : — 

Madness, with his frightful scream, 

Vengeance, leaning on his lance, 
Avarice, with his blade and beam, 

Hatred, blasting with a glance ; 
Remorse that weeps, and Rage that roars. 
And Jealousy that dotes, but dooms, and murders yet adores; 

Mirth, his face with sunbeams lit. 

Waking Laughter's merry .swell. 
Arm in arm with fresh-eyed Wit, 

That waves his tingling lash, while Folly shakes his bell. 

Despair that haunts the gurgling stream. 
Kissed by the virgin moon's cold beam, 
Where some lost maid wild chaplets wreathes 
And, swan-like, there her own dirge breathes. 

Then broken-hearted sinks to rest, 

Beneath the bubbling wave that shrouds her maniac breast. 

Young Love with eye of tender gloom. 
Now drooping o'er the hallowed tomb 

Where his plighted victims lie, 

Where they met, but met to die, 
And now, when crimson buds are sleeping 
Through the dewy arbor peeping, 
Where Beauty's child, the frowning world forgot. 

To youth's devoted tale is listening, 

Rapture on her dark lash glistening. 
While fairies leave their cowslip cells, and guard the happy spot. 

Thus rise the phantom throng, 
Obedient to their Master's song, 
And lead in willing chains the wondering soul along. 

— Charles S Prague. 
156 




IHE fine arts, as understood at present, in- 
clude the departments of art which primar- 
ily employ the imagination and taste in the 
production of what is beautiful. Architecture, 
painting, and sculpture are distinctly fine arts, but the term is 
often extended to include engraving, music, and poetry. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia contains 
many hundreds of articles relative to these topics. The treat- 
ment is according to the most approved methods of teaching, 
taking up the general subject from these standpoints— the artistic, 
biographical, and historical. This treatment commends itself to 
the student because it furnishes information from different points 
of view. The artistic furnishes knowledge of a particular art; 
the biographical deals with the life of the individual artist; and 
the historical places the products within a certain country or a 
particular era. 

A study of the fine arts has a refining influence. It brings the 
mind in contact with the most beautiful products of man. As an 
environment to the student and the scholar, no other branch of 
knowledge so completely comes in touch with the higher nature. 
In this sense it is far-reaching in stimulating the imagination and 
furnishing material for continuity of thought. 

Architecture. 

f Architecture occupies a foremost position among the fine arts. 

Although it may be said to include all kinds of construction, in a 
higher sense it relates only to the buildings which please the eye, gratify the 
mind, or answer utilitarian purposes. 

For the purpose of study, the subject is usually divided .with reference to the 
purposes that the structures serve in the economy of life. This gives rise to a 
large number of classifications, but, as a matter of convenience, we confine them 
to the three headings of civil, military, and religious. Many of the articles to 
which reference is made are further explained by correlated topics, giving the 
student a wide range of information. 

157 



Outline. 



I. Civil Architecture. 






Amphitheater. 


Catacombs. 


Hotel. 


Theater. 


Aqueduct. 


Circus. 


Louvre. 


Tomb. 


Arch. 


Colosseum. 


Luxembourg. 


Tuileries. 


Arch Triumphal. 


Column. 


Palais Royal. 


Tunnel. 


Bath (Bathing). 


Elevator. 


Pyramid. 


Vault. 


Bridge. 


Forum. 


Sphinx. 


Westminster 


Canal. 


Fountain. 


Sewer (Sewer- 


Abbey. 


Capitol. 


Fresco. 


age). 


White House 





Ionic Order. 



Doric Order. Composite Order. 

STYLES OF COI^UMNS. 



Corinthian Order. 



n. Military Architecture. 
Abatis. Castle. 

Acropolis. Citadel. 

Buttress. Fortification. 

HL Religious Architecture. 



Pontoon. 

Portcullis. 

Prisons. 



Alhambra. 

Altar. 

Babel, Tower of. 

Basilica. 

Cathedral. 



Church. 

Minaret. 

Monastery. 

Mosque. 

Oratory. 



Pagoda. Tabernacle. 

Pantheon. Taj Mahal. 

Peter's, Saint. Temple. 
Pitti Palace. 

Sophia, Church of Saint. 



Builders and Architects. 



Angelo, Michael. 

Bernini, Giovanni. 

Brunelleschi, Filippo. 

Cheops. 

Chephren. 

Eads, James Buchanan. 

Hunt, Richard Morris. 



Jones, Inigo. 

McKim, Charles Follen. 

Paxton, Sir Joseph. 

Richardson, Henry 
Hobson. 

Roebling, Wash- 
ington A. 

158 



Solomon. 

Street, George Edmund. 
Walter, Thomas Ustick, 
Waring, George Edwin 
Waterhouse, Alfred. 
Wren, Sir Christopher. 



Correlated Subjects. 



Acoustics. 


Cement. 


Granite. 


Acropolis. 


Clay. 


Gravel. 


Adobe. 


Concrete. 


Iron. 


Arch. 


Dome. 


Lime. 


Asphalt. 


Fagade. 


Limestone 


Brick. 


Gable. 


Lumber. 


Bungalow. 


Gothic Archi- 


Marble. 


Carving. 


tecture. 


Mosaics. 



Roof. 

Sand. 

Stadium. 

Slate. 

Steel. 

Stone. 

Terra Cotta. 

Tile. 

Window. 




4, Elliptical. 



Another classification of architecture consists of the divisions which pertain 
particularly to some definite era or to some nation or people. The beginning may 
be assigned to prehistoric times, especially in Egypt, where the essential princi- 
ples of architecture were well understood before the dawn of history. This is 
exemplified by the remains of vast structures, chiefly temples and monuments, 
built under kings of the old empire. The student may study the general subject 
under the following outline, which divides the architectural forms by classes into 



Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern. 



L Ancient. 



2. 



Egyptian. 

A. Size — Very large. 

B. Design — Simple and substantial. 

C. Material — Plain, rough blocks of stone. 

D. Early destruction of largest buildings. 

E. Walls and pillars — Ornamented. 

F. Pyramids. 

G. Tombs. 
H. Obelisks. 

I. Temples. 
J. Palaces. 

K. Strength and durabiHty. 
L, Religious sentiments. 
M. Symbols and hieroglyphics. 
Babylonian and Assyrian. 

A. Less known. 

B. Vaults and arches used. 

C. Material — Sun-dried brick, alabaster, wood, carved stone. 

D. Palaces. 

E. Temples. 

a. Stepped pyramids. 

159 



b. Of great height. 

c. Externally massive. 

d. Receding stories brilliantly colored and faced with glazed tiles. 
F. Style lasted from 6000 b. c. to time of Nebuchadnezzar without 

essential change. 

3, Grecian. 

A. Styles. 

a. Doric. 

b. Ionic. 

c. Corinthian. 

B. Most beautiful erected between 650 and 324 b. c. 

C. Adorning — Paintings, sculpture, and magnificent coloring. 

D. Temples. 

a. Structure supported by massive columns. 

b. Dedicated to patriotism. 

c. Parthenon at Athens still remaining. 

d. Temple at Selinus, Sicily. 

E. Theaters — Seating capacity, 30,000. 

F. Ruins. 

a. Sicily. 

b. Greece. 

c. Asia Minor. 

G. Decline of this class — After death of Alexander the Great. 

4. Roman. 

A. Theaters and amphitheaters. 

B. Temples. 

C. Bridges. 

D. Aqueducts and sewers — Skilfully made, with use of the arch. 

E. Baths or thermae — Suitable for use of multitudes at a time. 

F. Triumphal arches. 

G. Private residences and villas. 
H. Orders. 

a. Tuscan. 

b. Composite. 
I. Characteristics. 

a. Patterned somewhat after Grecian. 

b. Utilitarian. 

c. Imposing and costly in appearance. 

d. Pictorial. 

e. Greatest perfection reached in reign of Augustus. 

f. Decline began after death of Hadrian. 
J. Examples. 

a. Titus Arch at Rome. 

b. Colosseum. 

c. Pantheon. 
IT. Mediaeval. 

1. Byzantine. 

A. Christians permitted by Constantine to build places of worship. 

B. Church of Saint Sophia. 

a. At Constantinople. 

b. Constructed by Justinian. 

c. Has Roman arch and magnificent dome. 

d. Later converted into Turkish mosque. 

C. The most beautiful and valuable works destroyed with fall of Rome. 

D. Architecture of the Normans flourished in the 13th century. 

E. That of the Lombards in South Germany in the 8th century. 

160 



F. Moorish or Saracenic forms introduced into Europe in the 8th 

century. 

G. Example — Alhambra, near Granada, Spain. 
H. Characteristics. 

a. Dome. 

b. Gorgeous, but harmonious, color decorating. 

c. Glass — Mosaic on gold ground. 

d. Arches supported on columns. 

2. Romanesque. 

A. Came with the spread of Christianity. 

a. Germany. 

b. Italy. 

c. France. 

d. England. 

e. Spain. 

B. Three-aisled Christian basilica converted into a vaulted structure. 

C. Development of the vault. 

D. Dome, tunnel vault, cross vault. 

E. Crypt, porch, tower, fagade, ribbed groin vault. 

F. Stone used instead of brick. 

G. Heavy, round, or clustered piers used instead of columns, and spaced 

farther apart. 
H. Appearance — Rich, heavy, and impressive. 
I. Examples. 

a. Church of Saint fitienne, France, founded by William the Con- 

queror. 

b. Church of Michele, in Pavia, regarded the oldest in Italy. 

3. Gothic. 

A. A continuation of the Romanesque. 

B. Introduced into Germanv in the 8th century by Charlemagne. 

C. Style. 

a. Pointed arches. 

b. Clustered pillars. 

c. Vaulted roof. 

d. Profusion of ornaments. 

D. Later changes. 

a. Windows divided into small panes. 

b. Doorways constructed with square tops over pointed arches. 

c. England adopted Elizabethan style in 17th century. 

d. Italians took up Renaissance style. 

E. Specimens. 

a. Cathedral of Cologne, Germany. 

b. Westminster Abbey, London. 

c. Gothic cathedral, Amiens, France. 

d. Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris. 
IIL Modern. 

1. Materials. 

A. Iron. C. Concrete. 

B. Steel. D. Cement. 

2. Classes. 

A. Private residences. F. Elevators. 

B. Churches. G. Tunnels. 

C. Business houses. H. Towers. 

D. Hospitals. L Monuments. 

E. Government buildings. J. Railroad construction. 

161 . 



3. Characteristics. 

A. An imitation of older forms. 

B. Great height. 

C. Close proximity. 

D. Rapidity in construction. 

4. European. 

A. Statue of Liberty. 

B. Eififel Tower. 

C. Simplon Tunnel. 



E. Durability. 

F. Large capacity. 
G- Safety from fire. 



D. Vatican, Rome. 

E. Parliament Building, Londoin. 

F. Saint Peter's, Rome. 

G. Westminster Abbey, near London. 



American. 

A. Washington Monument. 

B. Capitol, Washington, D. C. 

C. Mormon Temple, Salt Lake City. 

D. Singer Building, New York City. 

E. Masonic Temple, Chicago. 

F. Union Trust Company office, Saint Louis. 

G. Metropolitan Building, New York City. 




PARLIAMENT BUILDING AT LONDON, ENGLAND. 

Questions on Architecture. 

By what were the characteristics of early architecture determined? 

Where are the oldest remaining structures? 132. 

Write a descriptive article of the tombs and pyramids of Egypt. 

Which is the most noted of the ruined palaces of Persia and Assyria? 

State the noted riddle of the Sphinx. 

Name some of the most noted architects of Greece. 

What were three styles used in Grecian architecture? 

Describe the Acropolis at Athens. 

Why were the baths or thermae of Rome so notable? 

In the construction of what two classes were the Romans especially skillful? 

What are the chief characteristics of the Byzantine style? 

State some specimens of Gothic architecture. 

Tell about the temple at Selinus, the Colosseum at Rome, the Cathedral of 
Cologne, and the Titus Arch. 

What materials are now used in general construction? 

State some characteristic features of modern architecture. 

Name some famous types of the present European styles. 

What are some of the most wonderful and finest buildings of recent design 
in America ? 

162 



Sculpture. 

Sculpture occupies a foremost position among the fine arts. The art of carv- 
ing or chiseHng figures from wood or stone was developed to a very high degree 
by the ancients. Indeed, antiquity claims a very prominent place in sculpture as 
well as in painting, as is witnessed by the products of ancient Egypt, Greece, 
and Rome. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia contains scores of articles 
on this and correlated subjects, but the general article on sculpture is the basis 
for study. It presents under subheads the processes, materials, methods, and 
history of the art, enabling the student to study the characteristics and develop- 
ment of the different schools. 

Correlated Topics. 



Alabaster. 


Colossus. 


Laocoon. 


Sphinx. 


Bas-Relief. 


Gypsum. 


Marble. 


Stucco. 


Bell. 


Hieroglyphics. 


Niobe. 


Terra Gotta. 


Bronze. 


Iconoclast. 


Obelisk. 


Tomb. 


Carving. 


Idol. 


Parthenon. 


Totemism. 


Cleopatra's 


Ivory. 


Pyramids. 


Wood Carving, 


Needles. 










Biographies 


of Sculptors. 




Angelo. 


Flaxman. 


Kraft. 


Saint Gaudens. 


Bartholdi. 


Foley. 


Niehaus. 


Schadow. 


Bernini. 


French. 


Partridge. 


Schilling. 


Brown. 


Ghiberti. 


Phidias. 


Siemering. 


Canova. 


Gibson. 


Praxiteles. 


Story. 


Cellini. 


Greenough. 


Ranch. 


Taft. 


Crawford. 


Hosmer. 


Rinehart. 


Thorwaldsen. 


Donatello. 


Houdon. 


Rodin. , 


Vinci. 


Drake. 


Kiss. 


Rogers. 


Ward. 



Outline on Sculpture. 

I. Definition : Sculpture is the art of cutting or carving figures from stone, 

wood, metal, or some other hard substance. 

II. Classes. 

1. Sculpture proper. 

A. Dimensions — Length, breadth, and height. 

2. ReHef. 

A. Dimensions — Thickness or 

depth relatively produced. 

B. Bas-relief. 

C. Mezzo-rilievo. 

D. Alto-rilievo. 

III. Materials. 

1. Marble. 5. Bronze. 

2. Stone. 6. Granite. 

3. Ivory. 7. Wood. 

4. Gold. 

IV. Methods. 

1. Carved in wood, etc. 

2. Cut in stone. 

3. Moulded. 

A. Work modeled first in soft 

clay. 

B. Supported by skeleton 

frame. 

C. Plaster cast then made. 

D. Copy prepared. 

163 




KISS'S AMAZON AT BERLIN, GERMANY. 



E. Finishing touches. 

F. Metal cast. 
4. Appearance. 

A. No color (as formerly) and no picturesque background. 

B. Wholly depend upon pure form. 

C. Most perfect specimens — Those truest to nature. 

v. History. 

1. One of most ancient of arts. 
3. First productions. 

3. Early productions— Mythology and religion. 

4. Egyptian. 

A. Earliest forms of higher art. 

B. Represent men and industries. 

C. Large, symmetrical, stable ; of calm and solemn expression. 

D. Sphinx. 

E. Value — Historically ; influence upon the development of art in other 

countries. 

5. Assyrian. 

A. Historical and general scenes. 

B. More vigorous in spirit than Egyptian. 

C. Much inferior in idealistic beauty and trueness to nature. 

D. Period of highest development. 

6. Persian — Compare with Assyrian. 

7. Grecian. 

A. Carried sculpture to high perfection. 

B. Earliest specimens. 

C. Noted sculptors. 

D. Masterpieces. 

E. Characteristics. 

8. Roman. 

A. Attributed to Grecian artists. 

B. Transportation of treasures to Rome. 

C. Decline and advancement. 

D. Carvings of Niccola Pisano and son. 

E. Revival of art — Lorenzo Ghiberti. 

F. Leaders in the various centuries. 

9. Name leaders and masterpieces of — 

A. Germany. 

B. France. 

C. Denmark. 

D. United States.' 



Questions on Sculpture. 

What is sculpture? Who were the earliest skilled workmen In this art? 
2568. 

From what are the figures made before casting? . 
Explain three forms of sculpture in relief. 
What materials are generally used? 

State some of the disadvantages of this art compared with painting. 
Describe the modern process of making a statue. 

164 



What representations did the early sculptors seek to produce? 

Of what does the sculpture of China and India chiefly consist? 

For what is the Egyptian art especially noted? 

Sculpture is of what value to us historically? 

Describe the famous Statue of Liberty. 

Give a brief sketch of the life and work of Michael Angelo. 101. 

Give a list of famous Italian sculptors. 

Name some of the most celebrated productions of Thorwaldsen, Diirer, 
Flaxman, Taft, Saint Gaudens, Bernini, and Phidias. 

Mention the sculptors of the following productions : The Fighting Gladiator, 
Christ the Comforter, Laocoon, Ruth, Statue of Washington, and The Sleeping 
Faun. 

Name some prominent sculptors of the United States, and at least one of 
their pieces. 



Art in Literature. 

Seraphs share with thee 
Knowledge : But art, O man, is thine alone ! 

— Schiller. 

A flattering painter who made it his care, 

To draw men as they ought to be, not as they are. 

— Goldsmith. 

His pencil was striking, resistless, and grand ; 
His manners were gentle, complying, and bland ; 
Still born to improve us in every part, 

His pencil our faces — his manners our heart. 

— Goldsmith. 

Painting is welcome ! 
The painting is almost the natural man; 
For since dishonor traffics with man's nature, 
He is but outside; these pencil'd figures are 
Even such as they give out. 

— Shakespeare. 

The hand that rounded Peter's dome. 
And groined the aisles of ancient Rome, 
Wrought in a sad sincerity; 
Himself from God he could not free; 
He builded better than he knew; — 
The conscious stone to beauty grew. 

— Emerson. 

Sculpture is more than painting. It is greater 
To raise the dead to life than to create 
Phantoms that seem to live. The most majestic 
Of the three sister arts is that which builds; 
The eldest of them all, to whom the others 
Are but the handmaids and the servitors, 
Being but imitation, not creation. 

— Longfellow. 

165 



Engraving. 

Engraving, although an ancient art, is now employed most extensively in 
printing on paper. Other purposes for which engravings are used include stamp- 
ing for decoration, as in making seal rings and in engraving bronzes and 
silverware. 

Engravings made for printing consist either of incised designs or of relief 
designs. In the former process, plates of metal, usually copper, are made and 
the ink is applied to the incised designs. On the other hand, in the latter process, 
the image is produced from the relief designs. For general information on this 
subject consult the following 

Correlated Subjects. 

Camera. Electrotyping. Photography. 

Caracci, Agostino. Etching. Printing. 

Dore, Paul Gustave. Half-Tone. Wood Engraving. 

Diirer, Albrecht. Lithography. Zinc Etching. 

Outline on Engraving. 

I. Origin. 

1. Egyptians. 

2. Phoenicians. 

3. Grecians. 

4. Printings from engravings common in China in the 10th century. 

5. Italians and Germans attained skill in the 13th century. 

6. Discovery made by Florentine artist. 

7. Earliest niello proof on paper (1452). 

8. Cuttings in stone, granite, cameo, metal, and armor. 

II. Kinds. 

1. Wood engraving. 

A. Originated in China. 

B. Material — Hard, fine-grained wood, such as Turkish boxwood. 

C. Preparation of plate. 

D. Drawing of picture on the surface with pencil or brush. 

E. Engraver proceeds with fine steel tools. 

F. Easily duplicated by electrotype and stereotype. 
3. Lithography. 

A. Drawing or engraving made on flat lithographic stone. 

B. Process of developing impression. 

C. Zincography — From zinc plates. 

D. Chromolithography — Natural colors. 

E. Photolithography — Photographic negative transferred to stone 

plates. Used for maps, plans, outlines, etc. 
3. Etchings. 

A. Tools. 

B. Plates — Metallic (steel, copper). 

C. Wax, water, acid, and varnish, 

166 



D. Processes. 

a. Rebiting. 

b. Line engraving. 

c. Soft-ground. 

d. Mezzotint. 

e. Mixed style. 

E. Classes, 

a. Half-tone — Magazines. 

b. Line relief — Cheap newspaper illustrations. 

c. Chalk plate — Small cuts and weather maps. 

d. Intaglio engraving. 

e. Wax — Railroad, geographical, state, county, 

maps. 



and township 



4. Photography. 

A. Its beginning. 

B. Heliography. 

C. Wet-plate process. 

D. Dry-plate process. 

E. Recent improvements. 

(a) Color photography. 

(b) Phototelegraphy. 

(c) Instantaneous 

process. 

(d) X-ray method. 

(e) Astronomical 

photography. 

(f) Photolithography. 

(g) Photomicroscopy. 



Methods. 

(a) Preparation of 

plate. 

(b) Exposure. 

(c) Impression. 

(d) Negative. 

(e) Print-out paper. 

(f) Toning. 

Instruments. 

(a) Camera. 

(b) Kodak. 

(c) Stereoscopic 

camera. 



Questions on Engraving. 

Give an account of engraving among the early Egyptians and Phoenicians. 

What helpful discovery was made by Maso Finiguerra? 

For what was engraving used in early times? 

Why are line engravings and wood cuts going out of use? 

State the value of copper in making etchings. 

Describe the process of producing an etching. 

For what is lithography used? What is electrotyping ? 

Where was the process of printing from engraving first commonly 

used? 923. 

Of what are illustrations in daily papers usually made? Railroad maps. 

Weather maps? 

Name the instruments used in photography. 
State some recent improvements in photography. 2201. 
Define half tone, graver, mezzotint, and negative. 
What is the Daguerreotype process ? 

167 



•Music. 

Music is the art of producing a succession of sounds in such combinations 
as to be pleasing to the ear. The sounds may be instrumental or vocal, depend- 
ing upon whether they are caused by an instrument or by the human voice. 

The art of music has to do with the imagination and the emotions. For 
this reason an agreeable succession of sounds is pleasing to the layman who 
understands few, if any, of the technical terms employed by musicians. How- 
ever, the pleasure of listening to musical productions is greatly increased by a 
critical understanding of the technique by which harmonious results are obtained. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia affords much pleasure to 
those who wish references in music and musical terms. Besides the general 
article entitled Music, the student will find ample information to enable him 
to speak and write authoritatively on this subject. This is true both of the 
technique of music itself as well as of musical terms, the history of music, and 
the lives of great musicians. 

Outline for Study. 

I. Definitions. 



Standard or concert 


Staff degree 


:S. 


Flats. 


pitch. • 
Diatonic scale. 


Clef. 




Leger lines. 


Musical staff. 


Modulation. 
Concordat. 


Octave. 


Key signatu: 


res. 


Chord. 


Keynote or keytone 


Key signs. 




Notes and rests. 


Pitch. 


Sharps. 




Melody and harmony. 




II. Divisions. 






Melodies, rythmics, dynamics. 






III. Musical 


Instruments. 




Accordion. 


Cornet. 


Harp. 


Saxhorn. 


Aeolian harp. 


Cymbals. 


Horn. 


Tambourine. 


Bagpipe. 


Drum. 


Jew's harp. 


Trombone. 


Banjo. 


Dulcimer. 


Lute. 


Trumpet. 


Bugle. 


Fife. 


Lyre. 


Viol. 


Calliope. 


Flageolet. 


Mandolin. 


Violin. 


Chime. 


Flute.' 


Ocarina. 


Violoncello. 


Clarinet. 


Guitar. 


Organ. 


Xylophone. 


Concertina. 


Harmonica. 


Pianoforte. 


Zither. 




IV. Musical Terms and Forms 




Bard. 


Festival. 


National Hymn. Reed. 


Cantata. 


Guild. 


Opera. 


Rhyme. 


Choir. 


Harmonics. 


Oratorio. 


Singing. 


Chord. 


Hymnology. 


Orchestra. 


Sonnet. 
Sound. 

Tnnp 


Chorus. 


Instrumental 


Psalms. 


Chromatic. 


music. 


Quartette. 


J. WiiV^. 

Trio. 


Conservatory. 


Melody. 


Recitative. 


Voice. 




V. Biographies 


; of Musicians. 




Abf 


Corelli. 


Mendelssohn. 


Saint-Saens. 


Auber. 


Dvorok. 


Meyerbeer. 


Schubert. 


Bach. 


Flotow. 


Mozart. 


Schumann. 


Balfe. 


Gluck. 


Nordica. 


Sousa. 


Barnby. 


Gounod. 


Offenbach. 


Strauss. 


Beethoven. 


Handel. 


Paderewski. 


Sullivan. 


Berlioz. 


Haydn. 


Palestrina. 


Thomas. 


Brahms. 


Kubelik. 


Patti. 


Verdi. 


Bull. 


Lind. 


Rossini. 


Wagner. 


Chopin. 


Liszt. 


Rubinstein. 


Weber. 



168 



Test Questions in Music. 

How does music rank among the fine arts? 

By what is attested the popularity of music in a-ncient times? 

Who were the earHest noted composers? 

Define staff, melody, octave, opera, duet, chord, and crescendo. 

Name six musical instruments in common use. 

Distinguish between a choir and a chorus. 

By whom was the aeolian harp invented ? 36. 

State some references to music found in the Bible. 

Recite three quotations from literature in reference to music 

Name the authors of the following: Home, Sweet Home', Star Stanzled 
Banner, America, The Messiah, and Requiem. 

What composer is noted for the ease and dignity with which he wrote ^ 

Name some of the best works of Schubert, Beethoven, Verdi, Mendelssohn. 

(jrive a hst of six noted smgers. Of six composers. 

Explain how a nation's character may be judged by the standard of its 
music. 

Name a celebrated band leader. A leader of orchestras 

Give a brief sketch of the life of "The Swedish Nightingale." 1596 

^ or what is Frances Crosby noted? What peculiar disadvantage did she 
have r ^ & 

Music in Literature. 

Song forbids victorious deeds to die. 

— Schiller. 

Music should strike fire from the heart of man, and bring tears from the eyes of 



woman 



u ^ ,, ,• , , — Beethoven. 

How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ' 
Here will we sit, and let the sounds of music 
Creep in our ears: soft stillness, and the night, 
Become the touches of sweet harmony. 

— Shakespeare. 

And the night shall be filled with music, 

And the cares that infest the day 
Shall fold their tents like the Arabs, 

And silently steal away. 

— Longfellow. 

At every close she made, th' attending throng 
Replied, and bore the burden of the song: 
So just, so small, yet in so sweet a note, 
It seem'd the music melted in the throat. 



— Dryden. 



Is there a heart that music cannot melt? 

Alas ! how is that rugged heart forlorn ! 
Is there, _ who ne'er those mystic transports felt 

Of solitude and melancholy born? 

— Beattie. 

Orpheus could lead the savage race. 
And trees uprooted left their place. 

Sequacious of the lyre; 
But bright Cecilia raised the wonder higher; 
When her organ vocal breath was given 

An angel heard. 

And straight appeared. 
Mistaking earth for heaven. 

— Dryden. 

169 



Dictionary of Musical Terms. 



Accelerando, Quicken the movement. 

Accidentals, Sharps, flats, and natu- 
rals, introduced in a piece. 

Accompaniment, The harmony; all 
the parts except the one carrying the 
melody. 

Adagio, Quite slow. 

Ad Libitum, or ad lib.. At will. 

Affettuoso, Affectionately, tenderly. 

Agitato, Anxiously, an agitated man- 
ner. 

Allegretto, Briskly, but not as quick 
as allegro. 

Allegro, Quick. 

Al Segno, To the sign (Repeat from 
the sign :S: to the word Fine). 

Andante, Somewhat slow and sedate. 

Andantino, Not quite as slow as 
andante. 

Animato ; Animoso, In a spirited man- 
ner. 

Appoggiaturas, Notes of embellish- 
ment written in small characters. 

Aria, An air or song. 

Arpeggio, The notes of a chord when 
played successively. 

AssAi, Very, extremely. 

A tempo. In the regular time. 

Barcarolle, A Venetian boat song; 
applied to a light, graceful composi- 
tion in 6/8 measure. 

Ben, Well; as Ben Marcato, well 
marked. 

Brillante, Showy and sparkling. 

Brio; Brioso, With brilliancy and 
spirit. 

Cantibile, In a graceful, singing style. 

Capriccio, Fanciful and irregular com- 
position. 

Cavatina, An air of one movement or 
part. 

Chord, Several notes struck simultane- 
ously. 

Chromatid, Formed of semitones. 

Coda, A few bars added as a close to 
a composition. 

Con, With. 

Copula; Coupler, A mechanical stop 
in an organ by which two rows of 
keys are connected. 

Crescendo, cres., or < , Gradually in- 
crease the volume of tone. 
De Capo, or D. C, Repeat from begin- 
ning to the word Fine. 



Decrescendo, decres., > , Gradually 
diminish the volume of tone. 

Delicato, Delicately. 

Diatonic, Naturally, according to the 
degrees of the major or minor scale. 

Diminuendo, or dim., Gradually dimin- 
ish the volume of tone. 

Dolce, Sweet and soft. 

DoLCissiMO, As sweetly as possible. 

Dolore; Doloroso, Soft, sweet, and 
beautiful. 

Duet, A composition for two voices ; 
in two parts. 

E., And. 

Elegante, Gracefully, elegantly. 

Espressivo; Con Espressione, With 
expression. 

Extempore, Unpremeditatedly. 

Fantasie; Fantasia, An irregular 
kind of composition, in which the 
rules are to a certain extent disre- 
garded. 

Finale, The last movement or part of 
an extended composition. 

Fine, The end. 

Forte, or f.. Loud. 

Fortissimo, or ff., Very loud. 

FoRZANDOOR, fz., or > , Sudden empha- 
sis or force. 

Fuoco, With fire. 

FuRioso, Furiously. 

GiusTO, In exact time. 

Grave, Slowest degree of movement ; 
extremely slow. 

Grazioso, In a graceful, elegant style. 

Idylle, a name given to graceful com- 
positions in a romantic style. 

I., IL., The. 

Impromptu, An extemporaneous pro- 
duction. 

Interlude, A short strain, usually of 
4/8 measure, occurring between the 
verses of a hymn or psalm. 

Interval, Difference in pitch of two 
notes. 

Larghetto, Slow and solemn, but less 
so than largo. 

Largo, Very slow and solemn. 

Legato, Smooth and connected. 

Lentando, Gradually retard or slacken 
the time. 

Lento, In slow time. 

L. H., Left hand. 

Loco, Play the notes where written. 
The mark occurs after an 8va. 



170 



LuGUBRE, Mournfully, sadly. 

M., See Mezzo. 

Ma, But. 

Maestoso, Majestic and dignified. 

Main, Hand; M. G., Right hand; M. 
D., left hand. 

Manual; Manuale, The keyboard in 
contradistinction to the pedals. 

Marcato, Marked and emphatic. 

Marche; Marcia, A march. 

Marche Funebre, a funeral march. 

Meno, Less. 

Menuet; Minuet, A graceful move- 
ment in 3/4 measure. 

Mezzo, or M., Medium or moderate; 
Mf., rather loud; Mp., rather soft. 

Moderato, Neither slow nor quick; 
moderate. 

MoLTo, Very ; extremely. 

Mosso, Rapid (Pin mosso, more rapid; 
neno mosso, less rapid). 

MoTO, or Con Moto, With agitation and 
earnestness. 

Nocturne ; Nocturno, Night Song. A 
name given to light and elegant com- 
positions. 

NoN Troppo, Not too much. 

Pastorale, A soft and rural movement 
in 6/8 measure. 

Pathetico, Pathetically. 

Piano, or p.. Soft. 

Pianissimo, or pp., Very soft. 

Piu, An adverb of augmentation, as 
piu presto, quicker ; piu piano, softer. 

Poco, A little, somewhat. 

Prelude, A short introductory per- 
formance. 

Prestissimo, As fast as possible. 

Presto, Very quick indeed. 

Quartet, A composition for four 
voices, or in four parts. 

Quasi, As if, in the manner or style of. 

Quintet, A composition for five voices, 
or in five parts. 



Rallentando, or Rail, Gradually re- 
tard the time and diminish the vol- 
ume of tone. 

Religioso, In a solemn style. 

Reverie, A graceful composition in a 
free style. 

R. H., Right hand. 

Ritardando, Ritard, or Rit., Gradually 
slower. 

Romance; Romanza, A simple and 
elegant melody. 

Scherzo, A cheerful and humorous 
composition in quiet time. 

Semplice, In a simple way; unaffected 
style. 

Sempre, Throughout, always. 

Senza, Without. 

Sforzando, or sfz.. With sudden em- 
phasis. 

Slentando, Gradually retard the time, 
lentando. 

Sostenuto, Sustained, smooth, and 
connected. 

Spirito, or Con Spirito, With spirit. 

Staccato, Short and detached. 

Stringendo, Gradually quicken the 
time. 

Suspension, Holding a note or chord 
after the next chord is struck. 

Swell, or <> , Increase the volume 
of tone and then diminish it. 

Tempo, Time. 

Theme, A subject. 

Tranquillo, In a tranquil manner ; 
quiet. 

Trio, A composition for three voices or 
parts. 

Valse, a waltz. 

ViGOROSO, Boldly, vigorously. 

Vivace, With extreme briskness and 
animation. 

Vivo, Animated, lively. 



Evening Bells. 



Those evening bells, those evening bells! 
How many tales their music tells. 
Of youth, and home, and that sweet time 
When last I heard their soothing chime ! 



Those joyous hours have passed away, 
And many a heart that then was gay. 
Within the tomb now darkly dwells, 
And hears no more those evening bells ! 



And thus 'twill be when I am gone. 
That tuneful peal shall still ring on. 
And other bards shall walk these dells, 
And sing thy praise sweet evening bells ! 

— Moore. 



171 



Painting. 



Painting is a decorative art. It requires skill in the selection of colors as 
well as in the process of applying them to surfaces. The painter needs to go to 
nature for inspiration, to study objects and landscapes, as a means of making 
reproductions that are true to life. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia treats the general subject 
of painting in a special article, but in addition to this are presented many relevant 
topics. The whole treatment affords a prolific source of information, not only on 
paintings, but on painters and their life and achievements. 

Painting is a prolific field for the study of the beautiful. No home or public 
institution is cheerful without adornments from the hand of the painter. A few 
well-selected paintings from the great masters, a collection of the works of art, 
inspire home life with grand ambitions and lofty purposes. They quicken the 
imagination, sweeten the ties of friendship, and add luster to literature. 





Correlated Subjects. 




Art. 


Drawing. 


Landscape. 


Paints. 


Canvas. 


Enamel. 


Mosaic. 


Perspective. 


Ceramic Art. 


Encaustic Painting. 


Mummy. 


Pottery. 


Color. 


Fresco. 


Ochre. 


Vase. 


Distemper. 


Glass. 


Oil. 


Water Colors, 




Biographies 


of Painters. 




Angelo. 


Guido Reni. 


Millet. 


Tintoretto. 


Bartolommeo. 


Hals. 


Murillo. 


Titian. 


Bonheur. 


Holbein. 


Perugino. 


Vedder. 


Burne-Jones. 


Inness. 


Raffaelli. 


Vereshchagin. 


Caracci. 


Kaulbach. 


Raphael. 


Vernet. 


Cimabue. 


Landseer. 


Rembrandt. 


Vinci. 


Correggio. 


Leutze. 


Reynolds. 


West. 


Delaroche. 


Luini. 


Rossetti. 


Whistler. 


Diirer. 


Memling. 


Rubens. 


Wilkie. 


Eyck. 


Menzel. 


Ruysdael. 


Wyant. 


Giorgione. 


Millais. 


Sarto. 


Zeuxis. 



on Painting. 



ir. 



Definition : Painting is the art of adorning surfaces with paints and colors, 
1. Aim. 

3. Mastery of the art. 
A. Knowledge of : 

a. Form. d. Color. 

b. Design. e. Light. 

c. Perspective. f. Shade. 
General Methods. 

1. Drawing. 

A. Pencil. D. Pastel. 

B. Crayon. E. Water 

C. Charcoal. 

2. Oil painting. 

A. Canvas. 

B. Panel. 

172 



color. 



3. Mural. 

A. Fresco. 

B. Distemper. 

C. Encaustic. 

4. Others. 

A. Porcelain. 

B. Vase. 

C. Glass. 

D. Terra cotta. 

E. Enamel. 

III. Varieties. 

1. Decorative. 

2. Portrait. 

3. Landscape. 

4. Marine. 

5. Historical. 

6. Genre. 

7. Fruit and flowers. 

8. Battle. 

9. Architecture. 
10. Miniature. 

IV. History. 

1. Comes from remote . antiquity. 

2. Painted decorations in temples at Thebes. 

3. Mentioned by prophet Ezekiel. 

4. Use. 

A. Decorations. 

a. Tombs. 

b. Temples. 

c. Mummy cases. 

d. Public buildings. 

e. Rolls of papyrus. 

5. Greece — Most highly developed in painting. 

A. Schools. 

B. Noted scholars. 

6. Rome — Introduced from Corinth about G50 b. c. 

7. Italian — Developed about 1204. 

V. Oil Paintings. 

1. Introduced in 15th century, 

2. Brought forward masters. 

3. Developments. 

A. Better expression. D. 

B. Depth of color. E. 

C. Richness in effect. F. 

VI. General Developments. 

1. Deep shadows and enlargement upon indoor effects 

2. Extreme contrasts of light and shade — Rembrandt. 

3. Brilliancy and transparency of coloring — Jan Van Eyck, 

4. Grandeur of design — Michael Angelo. 
6. Elevated landscape painting — Guido. 

173 




miniature of WILLARD'S 

spirit op '76. 



Cannon to right of them. 
Cannon to left of them. 
Cannon in front of them. 
Volleyed and thundered. 

* * * * 

Flashed all their sabers bare. 
Plashed as they turned in air. 
Sabering' the gunners there. 
Charging an army. 

* * * * 

When can their glory fade? 
O the wild charge they made! 
All the world wondered. 

— Tennyson, 



>3a 



Inventive genius. 
Elegance in color. 
Individuality in character. 



Leonardo da Vinci. 



VII. Twelve Great Paintings. 

1. The Last Supper Da Vinci. 

2. Beatrice Cenci Guido Reni, 

3. The Assumption of the J'irgiii Titian. 

4. Sistine Madonna Raphael. 

5. The Transfiguration Raphael. 

6. The Holy Night Correggio. 

7. The Last Judgment Michael Angela 

8. The Descent from the Cross Volterra. 

9. The Communion of Saint Geromc Domenichino. 

10. The Immaculate Conception Murillo. 

11. Aurora Guido Reni. 

13. The Descent from the Cross Rubens. 



Questions on Painting. 

As a fine art, what is the aim of painting? 3080. 
The knowledge of what subjects is involved in painting? 
By what prophet is this art mentioned ? 

Upon what materials were paintings made in early days? Upon what now? 
State a half dozen varieties of paintings. 

What are art galleries? Locate a number of noted art galleries. 
Name the special developments due to Vinci, Jan Van Eyck, and Guido. 
In what respect did Michael Angelo surpass other artists of his time? 
The ancient Egyptian paintings are of what value to us? 
Tell how painting, sculpture, and religion are related. 
Mention the leading works of Rubens and Menzel. 
. For what is fresco work especially useful ? 

Name the twelve great paintings of the world. 

For what special lines of work are Landseer, Bonheur, and- Raphael noted? 
Mention the painters of the following: The Angelus, Aurora, The Horse 
Fair, and The Shepherd's Chief Mourner. 

Name some of America's best painters and their works. 



Correggio's The Holy Night. 

The following Christmas carol, translated from the German by Bernhart P. Hoist, inter- 
prets this picture : 

Silent night, Holy night ! Silent night. Holy night ! 

All repose, — halo light _ Son of God, love's pure light. 

Shines on the loving parental pair, O'erwhelms us, a redeeming power. 

Who in the stall at Bethlehem are When we're strik'n by the saving hour, 

By the heavenly Child, Jesus Christ, through Thy birth, 

By the heavenly Child. Jesus Christ, through Thy birth. 

Silent night, Holy night ! _ Silent night. Holy night ! 

Shepherds see star most bright. Earth, awaken at the sight, — 

Angels singing hallelujah. Let every creature bend the knee, 

Bringing glad tidings from heav'n afar, Let all proclaim the jubilee, 

Christ, the Savior, is born. Peace on earth forever, 

Christ, the Savior, is born. Peace on earth forever. 

174 



Study of Painters and Paintings. 

Sanzio Raphael. 

"The perfect artist, the perfect man." 




Sanzio Raphael, a celebrated Italian painter, was born at Urbino, Italy, on 
April 6, 1483. His death occurred on his thirty-seventh birthday, April 6, 1520, 
from a fever contracted while he was conducting some- excavations at Rome. 
His premature death caused much mourning, and he was interred with great 
honors in the Pantheon. 

The birthplace of Raphael is an in- 
teresting mountain town, directly east of 
Florence. It is in a section noted for its 
beautiful scenery, such as, later, Raphael 
loved to paint as a background for many 
of his most beautiful Madonnas. 

The inhabitants, shut in as they were 
from the outside world, led simple and 
religious lives. His parents were deeply 
religious and their entire thought was how 
they could best rear the little son of whom 
they were so proud. 

The father of Raphael was a painter 
and allowed him to assist about the studio. 
When Raphael was eight years old, the 
mother died, leaving the father to care for 
the child. In a short time a stepmother 
was brought home. Fortunately, she was 
a kind woman and could not have loved and cared more for the lad had he been 
her own. When the father died, she and his uncle managed his affairs with the 
greatest care. 

The most noted of all the Umbrian painters at this time was a peculiar little 
man named Perugino — a man with unusual ability in painting Madonnas. To 
this painter Raphael was sent. It is said that, when the artist examined the lad's 
work, he exclaimed, "Let him be my pupil; he will soon become my master." 

In this studio he remained many years, but the dream of his life, a chance 
to view the treasures of Florence, the art center of Italy, was not realized until 
in 1505. His first visit in Florence was short, but during the second visit he 
painted many of his best known pictures. He was most successful in his paint- 
ings of the child Jesus and the beautiful mother. 

Some of his best known pictures are the Sistine Madonna, Madonna of the 
GoldHnch, Madonna of the Meadow, Madonna of the Garden, Madonna Delia 
Sedia, and Madonna Saint Cecilia. All of these are finished in soft exquisite 
coloring. Indeed, Raphael has been considered one of the greatest colorists 
the world of art has ever known. 

He was given a commission by the Pope to paint in fresco three large 

rooms of the Vatican and to decorate the corridor leading to these rooms. In 

this corridor are the paintings known as Raphael's Bible of the Fifty-two Pictures ; 

forty-eight of these paintings represent Old Testament scenes and four are from 

the New Testament, 

175 



THE SISTINE MADONNA. 



Death claimed the great artist at the age of thirty-seven years, before he 
had completed The Transfiguration, which was finished by his pupils. 

The Sistine Madonna. 

The Sistine Madonna, considered by many as Raphael's greatest picture 
as well as one of the most famous of the world's paintings, now occupies a room 
by itself in the Dresden Picture Gallery, in Dresden, Germany. It was painted 
originally as a banner for the monks of Saint Sixtus, but was afterward used 
as an altarpiece, and was purchased in 1753 by the Elector of Saxony for the 
Dresden gallery. The picture is really a canvas panel over eight feet long and 
nearly six and a half feet wide. 

This work of art, as we usually see it, is always beautiful, yet we can hardly 
form any idea of its real beauty until we see it in the original colorings. The 
shades are so exquisitely blended and the expressions on the faces are so pure and 
ethereal that one hesitates in attempting a description. 

In looking at the picture we can almost fancy we are looking out through 
a window across which are draped curtains of a rich green hue. 

As we look through this window we seem to catch a glimpse of heaven ; 
faintly through the background is seen a cloud of countless cherubs. Out of this 
cloud appear the Madonna and the Child as though taking their way to earth. 
The figures on either side represent Saint Sixtus and Saint Barbara. Saint 
Sixtus looks earnestly into their faces while Saint Barbara occupies a position 
of deep devotion as though waiting for them to pass by. 

Underneath is a ledge upon which lean two beautiful boy angels, the final 
touch of love. The picture was completed without these cherubs, which were 
afterward added when Raphael found two small lads leaning on a parapet and 
gazing with intense earnestness on the beautiful picture. This famous Madonna 
was the last picture painted wholly by Raphael. 

Study of the Picture. Looking at the picture as a whole and thinking 
only^ of the trend of the lines, what figure do they form? Studying it in 
detail we find it to be a combination of pyramids. What is the size of the original 
picture ? Upon what was it painted ? Where is the picture ? Write a descrip- 
tion of it as it looks to you. Compare the mother's expression with the expres- 
sion on the face of the child. Which do you consider the more beautiful and 
why? The study of Raphael's life forms a basis for excellent language and com- 
position work. Write a composition, using the following outline as a basis : 

I. Describe the boy Raphael. II. Raphael's home and early life 

a. Appearance. III. His paintings. 

b. Disposition. IV. His later home and last days 



Whittier's Tribute to Raphael. 

The tissue of the Life to be Think ye the notes of holy song 
We weave with colors all our own, On Milton's tuneful ear have died? 

And m the field of Destiny Think ye that Raphael's angel throng 
We reap as we have sown. Has vanished from his side? 

''^^l^r:!^'^VL:^ here, °0r° Lrn^ly'^Lrd ""I'r S' ^ 

^Th/S'shaii^\p"r^ ^^"' Th^^p;reL?\t^'pas°t^:lt-"' 

ine rast shall reappear. Man's works shall follow him! 

,nn — J- G- Whittier. 



Jean Francois Millet. 




Jean Frangois Millet, the celebrated French artist, was born at Gruchy, 
Normandy, Oct. 4, 1814. 

This part of France is noted for its hardy race of peasants, some of them 
bold fishermen, others thrifty 
farmers. He was the second 
of eight children and was 
brought up to do the hardest 
of outdoor work. Although 
he afterward became one of 
the world's most celebrated 
artists, yet he always re- 
mained at heart a good 
peasant. 

The people of his vicinity 
were intensely religious and 
all their interests centered _^__^________ 

around the church. The Mil- the; gleaners. 

let family lived quite a distance from their beloved church, yet the associations 
were very dear to them all, and, when in after years Millet brought his own 
family back to spend a long summer holiday, he was able to make many 
sketches of the old familiar scenes which furnished materials for some of his 
best known pictures. 

The boy inherited some of his artistic tastes from his father, who was 
precentor of the parish church, and also conducted the village choir for many 
years. His mother belonged to a family of rich farmers who were looked upon 
as belonging to the gentle folk. 

As a child Millet was fond of reading, having shown a passion for the 
Bible. Indeed, it has been said that an old illustrated Bible first inspired him 
with the idea of expressing himself in art. Quite early he showed marked 
signs of great artistic ability and loved to draw and paint men and women as 
he saw them under the burden of heavy toil. When the father recognized his 
son's ability, he sent him to Cherbourg to study. Though he received fairly 
good instruction here, and later in Paris, yet his greatest teacher was Nature, 
and he was delighted to get to Barbizon, where he could study and work out 
the peasant life which he so much loved. 

In appearance he was a large, fine-looking man, with a countenance which 
bore the stamp of the thinker and scholar as well as artist. He was a man 
who had few intimate friends, a man who lived in a world of his own, yet the 
few people who were permitted to know him well loved him sincerely. He was 
twice married and always much attached to his home and home people. 

It has been said that among all his paintings Feeding Her Birds was his 
favorite, for when he worked in his garden his children were always hopping 
about him like birds, and that this is really a picture of his own home and 
garden. 

The Angelas is probably the best known of all his pictures. It represents 
an early twilight of an autumn day. The two peasants who have been work- 

177 



ing later than usual, in order to fill another sack with potatoes, are suddenly 
reminded of the hour of prayer by the ringing of the Angelus. An atmosphere 
of prayer pervades the entire picture. 

The patron for whom this picture was intended was very disappointed 
with it and for a time Millet found difficulty in disposing of it. In 1889 it was 
purchased by an American and carried on an exhibition tour through most of 
the large cities of Canada and the United States. It is now in the collection 
of M. Chauchard in France ; the canvas is somewhat cracked and the colors 
have grown darker. 

The hour after sunset is sometimes called the hour of Ave Maria — 

Ave Maria ! blessed be the hour ! 
The time, the clime, the spot, where I so oft 
Have felt that moment in its fullest power 
Sink o'er the earth so beautiful and soft, 
While swtmg the deep bell in the distant tower, 
Or the faint dying day-hymn stole aloft, 
And not a breath crept through the rosy air. 
And yet the forest leaves seemed stirred with prayer. 

— Byron. 

The Sower, another of Millet's famous pictures, was exhibited at the 
Salon in 1850. 

The Song of the Sower. 

Brethren, the sower's task is done, 

The seed is in its winter bed. 

Now let the dark-brown mould be spread, 

To hide it from the sun, 

And leave it to the kindly care 

Of the still earth and brooding air, 

As when a mother, from her breast 

Lays the hushed babe apart to rest, 

And shades its eyes, and waits to see 

How sweet its waking smile will be. 

The tempest now may smite, the sleet 

All night on the drowned furrow beat, 

And winds, that from the cloudy hold 

Of winter breathe the bitter cold, 

Stiffen to stone the yellow mould, 

Yet safe shall he the wheat; 

Till out of heaven's unmeasured blue 

Shall walk again the genial year. 

To wake with warmth and nurse with dew 

The germs we lay to slumber here. 

— Bryant. 

The Gleaners. 

The Picture. In this picture of Millet's we get a glimpse of a harvest 
field on a large farm. The wheat has been gathered and carried by wagons to 
a place where it is stacked in great mounds. After all this has been done, the 
gleaners are permitted to come into the fields and gather what is left. This is 
an old, old custom and dates back to the earliest times. It is still observed in 
France, although gleaning is allowed only in daylight. The time of the picture 
is probably noon of a summer day, when the sun is high in the heavens. 

The gleaners are three women of the peasant class, neatly dressed in 
coarse working clothes, representing the three ages of womanhood — a maid, a 
matron, and an aged woman. 

Millet's unusual ability to see and portray light and shade is well brought 
out in this picture, as well as his love and sympathy for the French peasantry. 

The painting was first exhibited at the Salon in 1876. In 1889 it was pur- 
chased by Madam Pommeroy for 300,000 francs and given to the Louvre, Paris. 

178 



Test Questions. 

What is the picture called and why? 

In what country is the practice of gleaning still carried on? 
What are some of the old laws regarding it? (Read Lev. xxiii., 22 ;Deut, 
XXIV., 19). 

What is the probable time of day ? Give a reason for your opinion. 
How many people do you see in the foreground? Describe each one and 
tell what they are doing. 

Describe the scene in the distance. 

Why are the gleaners only allowed in the field in daylight? 

Teach the lesson of the dignity of toil. 



Sublimer in this world know I nothing than a peasant saint, could such a 
one now anywhere be met with. Such a one will take thee back to Nazareth 
itself; thou wilt see the splendor of heaven spring forth from the humblest 
depths of earth like a light shining in great darkness. — Thomas Carlyle. 



The Man with the Hoe has probably caused more discussion than any of 
Millet's pictures. Many people have thought that it was the artist's intention to 
set forth the degrading effects of work, but this is not true. He simply painted 
life as he had seen it and lived it. 

The Man with the Hoe. 

Written after seeing Millet's World-Famous Picture. 

Bowed by the weight of centuries he leans 

Upon his hoe and gazes on the ground, 

The emptiness of ages in his face, 

And on his back the burden of the world. 

Who made him dead to rapture and despair, 

A thing that grieves not and that never hopes. 

Stolid and stunned, a brother to the ox? 

Who loosened and let down this brutal jaw? 

Whose was the hand that slanted back this brow? 

Whose breath blew out the light within this brain? 

Is this the Thing the Lord God made and gave 

To have dominion over sea and land; 

To trace the stars and search the heavens for power ; 

To feel the passion of Eternity? 

Is this the Dream He dreamed who shaped the suns 

And pillared the blue firmament with light? 

Down all the stretch of Hell to its last gulf 

There is no shape more terrible than this — 

More tongued with censure of the world's blind greed — 

More filled with signs and portents for the soul — 

More fraught with menace to the universe. 

What gulfs between him and the seraphim! 
Slave of the wheel of labor, what to him 

179 



Are Plato and the swing of Pleiades? 
What the long reaches of the peaks of song, 
The rift of dawn, the reddening of the rose? 
Through this dread shape the suffering ages look; 
Time's tragedy is in that aching stoop; 
Through this dread shape humanity betrayed, 
Plundered, profaned and dis-in-herited. 
Cries protest to the Judges of the World, 
A protest that is also prophecy. 

O masters, lords and rulers in all lands, 

Is this the handiwork you give to God, 

This monstrous thing distorted and soul-quenched? 

How will you ever straighten up this shape; 

Touch it again with immortality ; 

Give back the upward looking and the light ; 

Rebuild in it the music and the dream ; 

Make right the immemorial infamies, 

Perfidious wrongs, immedicable woes? 

O masters, lords and rulers in all lands. 
How will the Future reckon with this Man? 
How answer his brute question in that hour 
When whirlwinds of rebellion shake the world? 
How long will it be with kingdoms and with kings— 
With those who shaped him to the thing he is— 
When this dumb Terror shall reply to God, 
After the silence of the centuries? 

— Edwin Markham. 



The Angelus. 

Against the sunset glow they stand, 
Two humblest toilers of the land. 
Rugged of speech and rough of hand, 
Bowed down by tillage. 

O lowly pair! you dream it not 
Yet on your hard unlovely lot 
That evening gleam of light has shot 

A glorious passage; 
For prophets oft have yearned and kings 
Have yearned in vain to know the things 
Which to your simple spirits brings 

That curfew message. 

Enough for us 
The two lone figures bending thus, 
For whom that far off Angelus 
Speaks Hope and Heaven. 

— Lord Houghton. 



Some other well-known pictures are : 

"The Shepherdess," "The Gleaners," "Potato Planters," "Filling the Water 
Bottles," "The Church at Greville," and many others, all representing peasant 

life. 

Jean Frangois Millet has been called the "Dante of peasants and the Michael 
Angelo of rustic art." His death occurred in Barbizon, France, in 1875. 

180 



Rosa Bonheur. 




THE horse; fair. 



The life of Rosa Bonheur 
is one of the most interesting 
of all artists, including- as it 
does years of poverty and 
struggle, and later years of 
fame and all the luxuries 
wealth can procure. To-day 
her name is loved and hon- 
ored by the whole world, es- 
pecially by the children, with 
whom she probably stands as 
first choice among artists. 

Much of this fame of Rosa Bonheur is due to the careful training she 
received from her father, who was a teacher as well as an artist. As an in- 
structor he possessed great ability, and his methods of instruction were far in 
advance of the times in which he lived. 

Among his earlier pupils was a beautiful musician with whom he fell in 
love and afterward married. They made their early home in the quaint old 
town of Bordeaux, on the west coast of France. Here, on March 22, 1822, was 
born the subject of this sketch. Her early years were spent in perfect freedom 
with her pets and animals as her playful companions. She dearly loved to 
follow them about and early became a close observer of the outside world, 
through these observations enjoying much that an ordinary child would have 
considered dull and uninteresting. 

Bordeaux was a commercial city with almost no opportunities for one of 
artistic tastes, so the Bonheurs were easily prevailed upon to remove to Paris. 
Their change occurred just at the breaking out of the Revolution, a most unfor- 
tunate time for the father to gain the patronage he so much needed. But 
only a short period elapsed before pupils were attracted to him and he was 
engaged to make illustrations for a scientist who was getting out a work on 
natural history. 

Upon the death of the mother, in 1835, the father was left alone to care 
for the family of children. Thoroughly impractical and crushed with sorrow 
over the loss of his beloved wife, he saw no better way to care for his children 
than to separate them. A kind friend took the youngest child, the two boys 
were sent to a boarding school, and Rosa was placed in another. School life 
was not to her liking. She was fond of all out-of-door sports and so exceed- 
ingly careless in her dress that she was often the subject of ridicule. She paid 
very little attention to books; about the only pleasure she derived from them 
was to scribble them full of pictures, sketches of animals, and funny pictures 
of teachers and friends. She made no attempt to gain the good will of her 
instructors and, as she was the instigator of many of the pranks of the school, 
one can easily see that the impression made was far from a favorable one. The 
little girl was next sent to a Madame Gaindorf to learn to sew, and in this, too, 
she was a failure. 

181 



Then an artist friend of her father's took her and, giving her brush and 
colors, she allowed her to assist in the studio. For the work she was paid a 
few cents. At last, the father, not knowing what to do, took her into his own 
studio. He was busy with his work and could give her almost no attention, 
yet she was perfectly happy and contented, amusing herself with paints and 
colors. 

Her first work of any value was a bunch of cherries, which was so cleverly 
drawn that her father resolved from that time on she should have careful train- 
ing. She. soon made such rapid progress in her work that she began copying 
the great pictures in the Louvre. This work she did so well that her copies 
brought good prices and she was able to aid her father in caring for his family. 
This copying gave her the highest training, which she afterwards fully appre- 
ciated; concerning it she said: "I cannot repeat sufficiently to young begin- 
ners who wish to adopt the hard life of the artist, to do as I have done: stock 
their brains with studies after the old masters. It is the real grammar of art, 
and time thus employed will be profitable to the end of their careers." 

She spent many years in studying the anatomy of animals until she under- 
stood it as thoroughly as a physician knows the structure of the human body. 
In order to perfect herself along this line, she spent much time visiting the 
slaughterhouses of Paris. Knowing animals so thoroughly enabled her to 
sketch quickly, and it was in this power to draw rapidly and accurately that 
she excelled. 

Her first picture to be exhibited In the Salon was a study of rabbits, drawn 
from life. In 1847 she took her first prize, a gold medal of the third class ; in 
1850 she was successful in gaining the first prize. 

To no one did these honors mean so much as to the aged father, who had 
watched her progress with fond hopes for her highest success. His last years 
had been easier, for he had been given an appointment in a young ladies' draw- 
ing school, but his health began to fail while she was engaged on the picture 
Oxen Ploughing, which afterward brought her much fame. When it was 
finished, he summoned strength enough to go and see it. The success of this 
picture seemed to be the crowning glory of his life and he lived but a short 
time after this. 

Upon the death of her fiather, she was given his position and carried on 
his work until her departure for By, which was afterward her home. This 
new home was very near Fontainbleau Palace, which was the favorite resi- 
dence of Napoleon III. and the Empress Eugenie. She soon became a great 
favorite of the Empress and it was through her influence that the badge of 
the Legion of Honor was bestowed upon her. In -after years she received many 
honors, coming from many countries, but the one that most delighted her was 
the one conferred by President Carnot, in 1893, which made her an Officer in 
the Legion of Honor. This last honor should be especially interesting to Amer- 
icans, as it was bestowed on account of the work sent to the World's Columbian 
Exposition at Chicago. 

For many years she made a study of animals ; lions and tigers, the stronger 
animals, appealing most to her. The lions she used as models became great pets 
and seemed to know and love her. During one of her absences, one of her pets, 

182 



Nero, was sent from home that he might be better cared for. He grieved for 
his friend and refused to be comforted. When she returned she found him 
ill and in a few days he died with his head on her arm. 

This beloved artist, whose hair had been whitened by much sorrow, whose 
countenance always wore the same sweet and placid expression, died at By, May 
35, 1899, at the age of 77 years. 



The Horse Fair. 

Rosa Bonheur's picture Oxen Ploughing proved such a success that she 
was fired with a desire and ambition to do something much greater and better. 
With this thought in mind she planned the Horse Fair. In order to do this well 
she made a careful study of horses, visiting horse fairs and markets, in spite of 
the fact that her friends had placed at her disposal their finest horses. 

To get about easily she adopted male attire, which she found so very con- 
venient that she afterward used it when at work. 

As the horses were to be two-thirds life size, the canvas required was an 
immense one and it was necessary for her to use a ladder much of the time in 
working. The completed picture was exhibited in the Salon in 1853. 

On account of the merit and great ability displayed in this work, the artist 
was allowed the privilege of exhibiting in the Salon without examination. 

The Horse Fair was afterward loaned for an exhibition in Ghent. The 
Belgians were not only delighted with the picture, but were so pleased with the 
artist's generosity that they sent her a cameo reproduction of the picture in 
miniature. 

At the close of the exhibition, she was offered 40,000 francs for it. She 
accepted the proposition and the picture was on exhibition first in England, then 
in America. 

It was finally bought by a wealthy American for 300,000 francs and is now 
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. 



Questions on The Horse Fair. 

A beautiful picture is a silent teacher. 

— Selected. 

What special preparation did Rosa Bonheur make for the production of 
this picture? 

What costume did she adopt and why ? 

How many horses can you count? How many men? How large are 
the horses? 

Describe one horse which you consider more beautiful than the others. 

Where and when was this picture first exhibited ? How was it received ? 

In what place was it afterward exhibited? 

When the artist sold the picture, how much did she receive for it? 

Who finally bought the picture and how much did he pay for it? 

Where does it now hang? 

Describe the picture as a whole. 

183 




Letters are intended as re- 
semblances of conversation, and 
the chief excellencies of conver- 
sation are good humor and 
good breeding. 

—Walsh. 



DEFINITION. A letter is a written communication from one person to 
another. Letters may be either private or pubHc. Private letters embrace Let- 
ters of Courtesy, Letters of Friendship, and Letters of Business. Pubhc letters 
include nezvs letters intended for publication and essays and reports addressed 
to some person or persons. 

HISTORICAL. Letter writing in some form has been employed since the 
earliest ages. Messages of all kinds have been inscribed on every available sub- 
stance — on stones, on skins of animals, on leaves of plants, and on tablets of 
clay. Many savages used the bark of trees for challenges of war or messages 
of good will. 

Letter writing as now used is a form of composition and is more frequently 
employed than any other class of writing. For this reason its importance cannot 
be overestimated. 

DIVISIONS OF A LETTER. 

a. Heading. 

b. Introduction. 

c. Body of the letter, 

d. Conclusion. 

e. Superscription. 

184 



■ The subject-matter is by far the most important part of the letter, yet 
there are certain usages which are absolutely essential to successful letter writ- 
ing. While these well-established principles may seem trivial in themselves, 
yet inattention to them displays ignorance or carelessness on the part of the 
writer and the consequences are very apt to be detrimental. 

PAPER TO USE. The selection of paper depends largely upon the nature 
of the letters to be written. Business letters are usually written on larger sheets 
of paper than letters of friendship and other notes. The sheet selected should 
be appropriate to the purpose for which it is employed, both in size and quality. 
Any good bookstore is able to furnish sizes adapted to the wants of any article 
or class of letters written. 

For personal letters, the order in which the pages are used and the sheet 
is folded should be such as shall not be confusing to the reader. The most careful 
attention should be given to margins, paragraphs, and indentations. It is very 
important to be original and to avoid imitating the style of others. What is 
written should represent the writer, not some one else. 

HEADING. The heading consists of the post-office address of the writer 
and the date on which the letter is written. Custom has decreed that the 
proper place for the heading is in the right-hand upper corner of the first page. 
The first line should be about one and a half inches from the top of the page. 
The second line should be commenced a little to the right and the third line, if 
any, a little to the right of the second, thus : 

/. (%Uiance^ Okiof <^ept. 4f fp^O, 

S, i34Q cfiftk (%venue, iBew JJotk (oity, 

3, Ihnive^dity of (yJoirinedotcL^, 

afloinneapoUdf (yJbiriiVD., 

4. S^. S". 2). %c. 3, 

9l5ov. Q6f iC)iO. 

It is essential to begin every important part of the heading with a capital 
letter. The parts should be separated by commas, the abbreviations should be 
followed by periods, and a period should be placed at the end of the heading. 

INTRODUCTION. The introduction consists of two parts, the jormal 
address and the salutation. The formal address embraces the title, the name, and 
the residence or place of business of the person addressed. Whether the address 
takes up one, two, or three lines is optional with the writer, but each line should 

185 



be followed by a comma, except the last line, which should be followed by a 
period. Titles are prefixed before the name, as follows: 

Master — boy. 

Miss — girl or unmarried lady. 

Misses — several unmarried ladies. 

Mr. — gentleman. 

Messrs. (Messieurs) — several gentlemen. 

Mrs. — m?.rried lady or widow. 

Mesdames (ma-dam') — several married ladies or widows. 

Rev. — clergyman. 

Rev. Dr. — clergyman who is a doctor of divinity. 

Dr. — physician or surgeon. 

Hon. — public man. 

Esq. — may follow name of gentleman, but two titles, as Mr. James Smith, 
Esq., should not be used. 

Prof. — prominent teacher. 

A. M., LL. D.; etc., may be suffixed in writing persons who hold literary 
or professional degrees. 

SALUTATION. The salutation is the word or phrase of address used in 
beginning the letter. It varies with the formality of the letter, or the position 
occupied by the person addressed. 

Such terms as Sir, Madam, Rev. Sir, etc., may be used in writing strangers, 
but in general writing they should be avoided, as they are too formal. In let- 
ters of friendship the salutation may be My dear Elizabeth, My dear nephew. 
Dear Aunt Mary, etc. ; in a business letter to an individual it should be Dear sir, 
My dear sir, or My dear Miss Martin; in a letter to a firm it should be Sirs, Dear 
Sirs, or Gentlemen. 

The official title may be used in addressing a military or naval officer, as 
Captain, Major, Commodore, General, Admiral. A governor is addressed as 
Sir, Governor, or His Excellency. The President may be addressed as President 
or His Excellency. 

No general rule is recognized in regard to punctuation of the salutation. 
The comma, colon, or semicoion may be used either alone or in connection with 
the dash, as My dear sir: — . According to some authorities the comma is the 
least and the colon is the most formal. 

BODY OF THE LETTER. The body of the letter, or the part which con- 
tains the subject-matter, is the most important. It should be written in the 
natural flow of language and should vary in style and length according to its 
character. 

It is usually thought best to commence the body of the letter one line below 
and directly underneath, or to the right, of the salutation. In business letters, 
where the salutation is short, it is not improper to begin on the same line with 
the salutation. 

Formal letters should not be written on a half sheet, but business letters, 
where the card of the person or company is printed at the top of the sheet, may 
be written on a single leaf. 

CONCLUSION. The conclusion of a letter consists of the complimentary 

186 



close and the signature of the writer. The choice of a complimentary close de- 
pends upon the relations which exist between the writer and the person to whom 
the letter is addressed. 

A business letter should be closed with an expression of respect only, such 
as Yours truly. Yours respectfully. Yours very truly, etc. 

Letters of friendship require some expression of regard. Among the more 
common forms of complimentary closings are the following: Your loving son. 
Ever your friend. Yours affectionately, Very sincerely yours, etc. 

The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of 
the main part of the letter and a short distance to the right. Except in cases 
of familiar relationship, the name should be signed in full and should be clear 
and legible. 

A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as Miss or Mrs. 
This may be done either by placing Miss or Mrs. in parenthesis before the name, 
or by writing the whole address below and to the right of the signature. Thus : 

(aToiddJ Sffle (^cfiuneman, 

c/fB'Cd, ohotnad Jo, cfSenton, 

CAUTION. Titles of this kind should be prefixed only in writing to 
strangers. A married lady should sign the initials and name of her husband, 
and a widow should use her own initials and name. 

SUPERSCRIPTION. The superscription is the address which is placed 
on the outside of the envelope. It should include all that is necessary for the 
letter to reach its destination and should be plainly and carefully written. It 
may be arranged in three or four lines, each one beginning to the right of the 
preceding one. 

A properly written address contains the title, the name, the street number, 
the post office, and the state or province. When writing to a small town or 
country post office, it is well to give the county. The usual plan is to write the 
street number just below the name, but it may be written in the left-hand corner. 

PUNCTUATION. The punctuation in writing the superscription has re- 
solved itself largely into one of taste. All abbreviations and the last line should 
be followed by the period. If any other punctuation is used, it consists of a 
comma after each line, although these commas may be omitted with perfect 
propriety. 

LETTERS OF BUSINESS. Since the purpose of business letters is to 
gain or impart information, they should be perfectly clear in meaning. It should 
be the purpose to make them short and concise. This is exemplified by the follow- 
ing motto posted over the door of the printing office of Aldus & Co. : 



Talk of Notning but Business and 

Dispatcn Tnat Business QuiCKly. 

S 

187 



Business men have no time to waste reading long, rambling letters, inter- 
spersed here and there with unimportant details. On the other hand, a business 
letter should be answered promptly and any information requested should be 
given accurately. 

Too much stress cannot be laid upon punctuation, correct spelling, and clear 
English in business letters, as it is among business men that we find the keenest 
critics. 

Applicants for responsible positions have been rejected either because they 
did not know the correct forms or, knowing them, did not heed them. For this 
reason, every letter should be examined carefully when it is finished to see that 
it contains no omissions and no mistakes. 

LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP. Letters of friendship are so different from 
business letters that it is more difficult to make definite rules in regard to them. 

Their purpose should be to induce pleasure, and it should be the endeavor of 
the writer to make them as entertaining as possible. Much of the charm of a 
friendly letter lies in the easy and natural way in which it is written. 

Only when we feel the individuality, the personality of the writer, has the 
written message any charm — a charm that seems to be slipping away from many 
letters of this new century, crowded out, perhaps, by the rush and throng of 
society engagements, by the demands of club life, or the absorption of business. 

WRITING OF NOTES. Note writing bids fair to become a fine art. 
There are few days during a month when a note of some kind is not in order. 

All presents should be acknowledged by writing a note. To omit this cour- 
tesy is to brand one's self as deficient of good breeding. 

Notes may be formal or informal. Formal notes include all forms of invita- 
tions, replies, and announcements. They should always be written in the third 
person. 

The heading, salutation, close, and signature should all be omitted. The 
address of the writer may be written either below the body of the letter or a 
little to the left. 



Good by — my paper's out so nearly, 
I've only room for Yours sincerely. 

— Thomas Moore. 



Models in Letter Writing, 

As every letter of friendship depends upon what the writer has to say at 
the time, it is difficult to suggest models that answer the purpose in every detail. 
A good plan is to write as you would talk, giving the leading details in an 
interesting manner. 

Friends and relatives enjoy good letters, whether they come from home or 
from a distant city or country. Such letters strengthen the ties of friendship and 
turn the mind to pleasant thoughts and hopeful ambitions. The rule is to write 
often and have many good things to tell in an interesting manner. 

188 • 



Model 1. 
Letter of Business. 



1QQ (pentez ^t., 

Jjed cJllooined, cJowa, 


iBewdon S^ &o,f 

378 "WaUA (%ve„ 
Gfiica^/Of SiL 


<^ept, 4f 1^10. 


zUeat i^izd: 


« 


(Body of 


Letter). 


Yeti/ 


tziiiif youtd, 
\yaznez Cb, UJualeijt 



Model 3. 
Letter of Business. 



Qq4 (yVoiclti^an Ubve., 

(jfiica^o, SU.f 

9^0V. 30, iC}iO. 
£Oaniel JjOU> & (do., 

23Q Sddex (^t., (^alem, c/rSadd., 

yentUtnefi: 

(Body of Letter). 

cJoedpectftilli/ yoiitd, 

(cUoiddJ (yJoinnie Cb, cJooe. 



189 



Model 3. 







Letter of Friendship. 






Slbadtdofi, \\ idcoTidin, 






Oct. i^f i^iO, 


SToy 


deat 


niece, 

(Body of letter). 

Jooviti^li/ ijomd, 

c^lOii'icLm clDti/ant, 



Model 4. 
Superscription. 



Stamp 



34 m Sue lid (%ve,, 

(d lev eland. C li'ic. 



The writer of a note may place the address either below the body of the mes- 
sage or a little to the left. 

190 



Model 5. 
Superscription. 



Stamp 



m~.. HQ. 0. &mccrndoc, 



The writer of a note ma> place the address either below the body of the 
message or a little to the left. 



Model 6. 

IN\^TATION. 

cMr. and Mrs. G. Bradshau^ 

request the pleasure of i^onr company on 

Tuesday Evening, 

September nintlj, at 

eight o'clock. 

lOlg Euclid Ave. 

Model 7. 

ACCEPTANCE. 

Miss LeCompte accepts with pleasure 
Mr. and Mrs. Bradshaw's invitation for 
Tuesday evening, September the ninth, at 
eight o'clock. 

Model 8. 

REGRET. 

Mr. Jones regrets that a previous engage- 
ment prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. 
Bradshaw's kind invitation for Tuesday 
evening, September the ninth. 



Model 9. 

INVITATION. 

My dear Mrs. Leathem, 

Will j'ou not give us the pleasure of 
your company at dinner on next Wednes 
day evening at six o'clock? Miss Rae of 
Davenport is visiting us, and we wish our 
friends to meet her. 

Very sincerely yours. 

Bertha Pike. 
229 Center St., 

Nov. 20, 1910. 

Model 10. 

REGRET. 

Nov. 21, 1910. 
My dear Mrs. Pike, 

I sincerely regret that I cannot accept 
your invitation to dinner next Wednesday 
evening, for I have made a previous engage- . 
ment which it will be impossible for me to 
break. 

Yours sincerely. 

Grace Le.'MHEm. . 



The difference between formal notes and informal notes consists in the 
forms in which they are written. All replies to informal notes should be 
written in an informal manner, being simply brief letters of friendship. 

13 191 



Model 11. 

Introduction. 

Sherbrooke, Que., Aug. 4, 1910. 
Miss Anna Sherman, 

Jamestown, N. Y. 
My dear friend : 

This will introduce to your kind consideration Mr. D. V. Gesner, a very 
worthy gentleman, whom I commend to your kind attention. 

Your friend, 

Ella T. Kearns. 



Model 12. 

Congratulation. 

Boone, Iowa, July 30, 1910. 
Miss Esse V. Hathaway, 

Marshalltown, Iowa. 
Dear friend : 

Kindly accept my hearty congratulations on your success in writing and 
publishing your new book. The Little Corsican. I had the utmost faith in your 
ability to produce a work of great value, one that would be interesting in style 
and valuable for the facts of history which you collated, but let me say the beauty 
and value of the completed work surpass even the highest anticipations of your 
best friends. 

You have my best wishes in the field which you have chosen, and I 
trust that your work will be entirely agreeable. 

Very truly yours, 

Gracia E. Tucker. 



Model 13. 

Condolence. 

Chicago, 111., Aug. 32, 1910. 
Mr. John B. Alden, 

Atlanta, Ga. 
My dear sir: 

Permit me to express to you the deep sorrow I felt on learning of your 
failure in securing the nomination for Governor in your State. Although you 
had the cooperation and support of a large part of the more intelligent voters, 
the time which you had for making a canvass was entirely too short. 

Your position jn the leading issues, in my opinion, is the correct one. 
Since "Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again," I am confident of your ultimate 
success. Deeply regretting the defeat for the present, I look hopefully forward 
to a complete victory in the future. 

Very truly yours, 

Belden J. Clark. 

192 



Model 14. 
Application. 

Tiffin, Ohio, July 33, 1910. 

Hoist Publishing Company, 

Boone, Iowa. 
Gentlemen: Kindly consider my application for the position of man- 
ager of sales for your company. I am a graduate of the Tiffin High School and 
hold a diploma issued by the Capitol City Commercial College of Des Moines, 
Iowa. 

Herewith I enclose testimonials from a number of prominent business 
men of Cleveland and Chicago, certifying to my ability and successful experience 
in the line of work for which you are receiving applications. 

Respectfully yours, 

Chas. E. Medaris. 



Model 15. 

Recommendation. 

Toronto, Ont., June 30, 1910. 
Hon. John D. Jones, 

President of the School Board, 

Ottawa, Ont. 
Dear sir : 

The bearer of this letter, Prof. J. C. King, has been personally known 
to me the ten years last past as a teacher and superintendent of schools. I 
have visited the classes where he instructed and know of his ability to manage 
and teach. 

Professor King is a teacher by nature and training. He has not only 
made an entire success of his work, but has acquired liberal and broad views of 
the teachers' profession. He is eminently fitted to take charge of your schools. 
I can speak of him and his work in the highest terms of praise. 

Very respectfully yours, 

David L. Maynard. 



Exercise I. 
Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and signa- 
tures for the following: 

To American Book Company, 300 Pike St., Cincinnati, Ohio. 

To a dear friend. 

To the school board, asking for supplies. 

To the Governor of your State. 

To a stranger. 

To a dry goods firm. 

193 



Exercise II. 
Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following : 
Miss Laura Graham, living at 1231 First Ave., Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 
The wife of a minister in Toronto, Ont. 
Your sister, who is visiting some friend. 
William A. Mowry, 17 Riverside Square, Hyde Park, Mass. 
The Rev. Charles St. Clair, 650 Center St., Davenport, Iowa. 



Exercise III. 

Write to John Wanamaker, Philadelphia, Pa., asking him to send you samples 
of silk. 

In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of 
stenographer. 

Write to the publishers of The Century Magazine, New York, N. Y., asking 
them to change your address from 312 State St., Chicago, 111., to 38 High St., 
Columbus, Ohio. 

Write to the President of University of California, Berkeley, Cal., for in- 
formation regarding the course of study in law. 



Exercise IV. 

Write a letter to a classmate, who is in the hospital, telling him the school 
news. 

Write to Puttkammer & Miihlbrecht, Buchhandlung fiir Staatswissenschait, 
Berlin, Germany, for a copy of Statistisches Jahrhuch. 

Write for information about silver mining to J, M. Macedo, Consul del Peru, 
Lima, Peru. 

Write to your mother, describing your visit in Quebec. 

Supposing you are camping, write of the experiences to your sister. 

Write to some boy friend of your hunting and fishing expeditions in the 
West. 



Exercise V. 
Write an invitation to a simple home wedding. 
Write a formal invitation to an afternoon reception. 
Write an acceptance of the same. 
Write regrets to the above invitation. 

Write to a friend, thanking him for a box of candy or beautiful flowers. 
Write congratulating your friend of his new appointment. 
Write a note of sympathy to a dear friend, on the death of her mother. 

194 




ZOOLOGY, the science that treats of the animal world, is studied from two 
aspects — condition and theory. The former aspect is concerned with facts 
as they are proven to be, while the latter takes into account the facts as 
they are observed. In these aspects, zoology relates to observed phenomena and 
the deductions that are based upon them. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is recommended as a pro- 
lific source of information for the study of this branch of general knowledge. 
It contains articles on all the important forms of animal life, both the past and 
present, and furnishes the basic facts for exhaustive research. 



Outline. 




archaeopteryx. 



II. 



I. Animal Life. 

a. Form and structure. 

b. Reproduction. 
Embryology and growth. 
Habit and instinct. 
Distribution and migration. 
Relationship. 

1. To other animals. 

2. To their environments. 
Extinct Animals. 

1. Birds — Archaeopteryx, dinornis, dodo, etc. 

2. Reptiles — Dinosauria, ichthyosaurus, pterodactyl, etc 

3. Crustaceans, fishes, insects. 

4. Mammals — Dinotherium, mammoth, mastodon, etc. 
Classification of Living Forms. 
1. Vertebrata, or Vertebrates. 

A. Origin of name. 

B. Description. 

a. Skeleton. 

b. Spinal cord. 

c. Lungs. 

d. Heart. 

e. Stomach. 

f. Brain, etc. 



III. 



Functions. 

a. Digestion. 

b. Secretion (Glands). 

c. Respiration. 

d. Circulation. 

e. Locomotion. 



D. Protection of body — Skin, hair, scales, feathers, etc. 

E. Examples — Amphibians, birds, mammals, reptiles, etc. 

195 



2. Arthropoda, or Articulates. 

A. Nervous system — Well developed. 

B. Eyes — Simple or compound. 

C. Parasitic — Some species. 

D. Reproduction — By eggs only. , 

E. Divisions — Arachnida, Crustacea, and antennata. 

F. Examples — Lobsters, spiders, cockroaches, butterflies, flies, bees, and 

insects. 

3. Coelenterata, or Many-Celled. 

A. Organism — Simple, 

B. Body cavity and circulatory system not distinctly separate. 

C. Food enters through mouth, passing into a system of chambers or 

tubes. 

D. Tentacles — Organs of touch, used as hands and fingers. 

E. Home — Sea (Mostly) and in fresh water. 

F. Types. 

a. True swimmers — Jellyfish. 

b. Cylindrical, fastened to some object — Corals, sea anemones, 

hydroids, etc. 

4. Protozoa, or One-Celled. 

A. Minute, microscopic, invertebrate, simple, structureless organism of 

jellylike substance. 

B. Found in fresh or salt waters. 

C. Some live in moist earth or as parasites. 

D. Assimilate food into their protoplasmic being. 

E. Forms — Sponges, coral, hydras, etc. 

5. Echinodermata, or Radiates. 

A. Third from the lowest division. 

B. Body — Five parts radiating from central axis. 

C. External skeleton — Calcareous, leathery, or covered with spines. 

D. Alimentary canal — Distinct from body, protected by skeleton. 

E. Nervous system — Radiate. 

F. About 3,000 living species — All marine. 

G. Seven divisions. 

a. Sea cucumbers. d. Starfishes. 

b. Sea urchins. e. Cystoids. 

c. Brittle stars. f. Pentremites. 

6. Mollusca, or Shellfish. 

A. Unsegmented, bilateral body, four nerve cords. 

B. Supplied with shells, or muscular sac, or body is quite naked and 

unprotected. 

C. Shellfish — Those with shells. 

a. Univalves. 

b. Bivalves. 

c. Multivalves. 

D. Kinds — Nautilus, oyster, clam, slug, snail, cockle, etc. 

E. Acephala — Without a head ; clams, oysters, mussels. 

F. Cephalopods — Head-footed ; nautilus, octopus, cuttlefish, 

G. Number of species. 

7. Vermes, or Worms. 

A. The lowest class of animals. 

B. Bodies — Elongate, flattened, or cylindrical. 

C. Structure — Segments, head, tail, surfaces, nervous system, heart, 

body cavity. 

D. Species — Numerous, but of same characteristics. 

E. Entozoa — Forms found in intestines of human body, especially 

children, 

196 



Questions in Zoology. 

Give the derivation of the word zoology. 3225. 

What does this study embrace? Deiine each department. 

To what classes of animal life did vSolomon refer? Job? Jeremiah? 

Of what do ornithology, herpetology, and arachnology treat? 

Of what genus is man? Tell of his creation. 

To which is animal intelligence due — instinct or reason? 105. 

Define sense, nucleus, segment, parasite, protoplasm. 

Which of the domestic animals are the most useful to man for (a) food, (b) 
clothing, and (c) beasts of burden? 

Why do animals migrate? Name ten migratory birds. 

What is meant by the following expressions: cold-blooded, ruminant, nat- 
ural selection, and survival of the fittest? 

Which class is of the lowest division of animals? 

How has nature provided for the warmth and safety of wild animals? 

Explain the habits of eating among carnivorous animals. 

Which animal can go longest without drinking? Why? 

Define the modern theory of embryology. 910. 

Describe the functions of digestion and secretion. 

What is microscopic zoology and why is it so named? 

Why do some animals become extinct? Name five extinct species. 



Polyp. 
Protoplasm. 
Protozoa. 
Reptiles. 
Rodentia. 
Sea Urchin. 
Species. 

Spontaneous Gen- 
eration. 
Starfish. 
Ungulata. 
Vertebrates. 
Worm. 



Let cavilers deny 
That brutes have reason ; sure 'tis something more, 
'Tis heaven directs, and stratagems inspire 
Beyond the short extent of human thought. 

— Somerville. 

The heart is hard in nature and unfit 

For human fellowship, as being void 

Of sympathy, and therefore dead alike 

To love and friendship both, that is not pleased 

With sight of animals enjoying life, _ 

Nor feels their happiness augment his own. 

— Cowper. 





Related Subjects. 


Acclimatization. 


Crinoidea. 


Infusoria. 


Amoeba. 


Crustacea. 


Insects. 


Amphibia. 


Dinosauria. 


Jellyfish. 


Anatomy. 


Egg. 


Longevity. 


Animal. 


Embryology. 


Mammalia. 


Animal Intelli- 


Evolution. 


Marsupialia. 


gence. 


Fauna. 


Medusa. 


Arachnida. 


Feather. 


Metamorphosis, 


Biology. 


Fish. 


Microscope. 


Birds. 


Foraminifera. 


Mollusca. 


Bone. 


Genus. 


Myriapoda. 


Carnivora. 


Hair. 


Nautilus. 


Cell. 


Hoof. 


Parasites. 


Cephalopoda. 


Hybrid. 





197 



Reptiles. 




GANGES GAVIAL. 



L Species— 2,000. 

II. Class — Cold-blooded, air-breathing vertebrates 

a. Oviparous and ovoviviparous. 

III. Body — E 1 o n- 
gated. 

1. Tail. 

2. Skin. 

3. Limbs. 

IV. Difference 

BETWEEN. 

1. Amphibians. 

2. Birds. 

V. Orders. 

1. Number — Ten (Six now extinct). 

2. Four living orders. 

A. Lacertilia — Lizards, chameleons, blindworms. 

B. Crocodilia — Crocodiles, alligators, gavials. 

C. Ophidia — Snakes. 

D. Chelonia — Turtles and tortoises. 

VL Food — Flesh, seaweed, insects, bugs, vegetables, flies, etc. 

often feed on smaller reptiles). 
VIL Homes. 

1. Warm and tropical climates. 

2. In or near marshes, swamps, and larger bodies of water. 

VIII. History, 

1. Antedate the Permian period. 

2. More numerous in earlier ages. 

IX. Uses. 

1. Food. 4, 

2. Destroyers of insects, flies, bugs, carrion, etc. 5, 

3. Skins — Leather (Shoes, purses, etc.). 6. 

X. Kinds. 

1. Tortoise. 4. Frog. 7. Alligator. 

2. Turtle. 5. Gavial. 8. Lizard. 

3. Toad. 6. Crocodile. 



(Larger ones 



Shells- 
Pets. 
Oil. 

9. 
10. 



-Ornaments. 



Snake. 
Iguana, etc. 



Questions on Reptiles. 

Distinguish between amphibians and birds. 2397. 

Name the four orders of reptiles now living. Give a list of the most common 
species. 

With what safeguard from destruction has nature provided the reptiles? 

What are the largest living reptiles? 

State a peculiarity about the skin of snakes. 

What is the Gila monster and what is said of its bite? 1140'. 

Tell about the size and hatching of crocodile and alligator eggs. 

By what people were crocodiles formerly held sacred ? 

What reptiles are found in Canada? 

Name three uses of alligator skins. 

What classes of snakes are common to your neighborhood? 

What is said about the chameleon changing its color of skin? 

Of what value are toads in a garden or hothouse ? 

198 



Snakes. 



I. Description. 



1. Nearest relative — Lizard. 

2. Body. 

A. Elongated and cylindrical, 

B. Covering — Horny scales, lapping folds. 

C. Skin — Thin ; shed at least once a year. 

D. Ribs — Sometimes hundreds of pairs. 

a. Give form to body. 

b. Aid in respiration. 

c. Organ of locomotion. 

E. Flesh — White and chickenlike ; considered wholesome by some. 

F. Eyes — Small, unprotected by lids ; sight feeble. 

G. Ears — Internal ear only ; hear well. 
H. Nostrils — ^Two ; keen sense of smell. 
I. Tongue — Forked. 



J. Fangs and poisonous glands. 

3. Eggs. 

A. Number. C. 

B. Places of deposit. D. 

4. Food. 

A. Insects. E. 

B. Birds. F. 

C. Reptiles. G. 

D. Mice. 

II. Species— From 1,500 to 1,800. 

1. Largest and most numerous in tropical regions 

2. Wet regions — Boa, python, etc. 

3. Arid districts — ^Viper, adder, rattlesnake, etc. 

III. General Classes. 

1. Burrowing 

snakes. 

A. Live under 

surface. 

B. Feed on in- 

vertebrate 
animals. 

C. Are most 

poisonous. 

2. Tree snakes. 

A. Live mostly 

in trees. 

B. Very poison- 

ous. 



Shell. 
Incubation. 

Monkeys. 
Small quadrupeds. 
Fish. 
H. Eggs, etc. 




PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE. 



C. Bodies green and slender, or color of tree. 

D. Feed on insects and animals. 

3. Ground snakes. 

A. Remain mostly on ground. C. Few are poisonous. 

B. Live in burrows made by other animals. 

4. Fresh-water snakes. 

A. Good swimmers. C. Feed on frogs, fish, and aquatics. 

B. Not poisonous. 

A. Generally poisonous. C. Unable to move on land. 

B. Rudder-shaped tail. 

199 



IV. Characteristics. 

1. Mostly timid and harmless. 

2. Vocal utterance is only a hissing sound. 

3. Are affected by musical sounds. 

4. Some bodies so dilate as to enable serpents to swallow prey much larger 

than themselves. 

5. When large prey is devoured the snake lies dormant until the food is 

somewhat digested. 

6. Snakes aid farmers by destroying mice, locusts, gophers, grasshoppers, 

etc. 
' 7. They may be trained by professionals called snake charmers. 

V. Kinds. 

1. Adder — Only poisonous snake in Great Britain. 

2. Asp — Native to Egypt and Libya. 

3. Boa — Large American serpent. 

4. Anaconda, or Water Boa — Skins used for bags and shoes. 

5. Garter, or Ribbon Snake — Small, harmless serpent. 

6. Rattlesnake — One of the most deadly poisonous. 

7. Viper — Resembles rattlesnake, native to Old World. 



Questions on Snakes, 

Mention and describe the five general classes of snakes. 2664. 
How do poisonous snakes differ from others? 
Of what use are serpents ? Can they be trained ? 
Upon which sense do snakes rely quite largely for their prey? 
Explain the shedding of the skin and the structure of the fang. 
Describe the formation of the rattles of the rattlesnake. 
Why is the puff adder so named ? The garter snake ? The rattlesnake ? 
By whom is the cobra de capello held sacred? What is the rate of fatalities 
caused by its bite? 

Relate the fable of Apollo slaying the python. 2342. 

Which portion of Scripture refers to the asp? To the adder? 

Name five kinds of snakes common to this vicinity. 

With the bite of what snake did Cleopatra accomplish her suicide? 

Upon what do snakes feed ? Can a snake swallow a frog ? 

Where is the black snake, or blue racer, found? Is it poisonous? 



Upon the Rhine. 

'Twas morn, and beautiful the mountain's brow — 
Hung with the clusters of the bending vine — 
Shone in the early light, when on the Rhine 

We sailed and heard the waters round the prow 

In murmurs parting, varying as we go, 

Rocks after rocks come forward and retire, 
As some gray convent wall or sunlit spire 

Starts up along the banks, unfolding slow. 

Here castles, like the prisons of despair. 

Frown as we pass ! — there on the vineyard's side. 
The bursting sunshine pours its streaming tide; 

While Grief, forgetful amid scenes so fair. 

Counts not the hours of a long summer's day. 

Nor heeds how fast the prospect winds away. 

— William Lisle Bowles. 

200 



Frog and Toad. 



I. Class — Tailless amphi- 

bians. 

II. Head — Nose, mouth, teeth, 

tongue. 

III. Legs — Feet, toes. 

IV. Skin. 

a. Color. 

b. Warty in some species. 

V. Eggs. 

1. Composition. 

2. Number. 

3. When laid. 

VI. Stages of Development. 

1. Enlarging and hatch- 

ing. 

2. Tadpole. 

3. Tadpole with outer 

gills. 

4. Tadpole with inner 

gills. 

5. Tadpole with two legs. 

6. Tadpole with four legs. 

7. Frog with rudimentary tail. 

8. Adult frog or toad. 

VII. Breathing and Movements. 

VIII. 1. Frogs — Common, bull, wood frogs. 

2. Toad — Natterjack, common, Surinam toads. 

IX. Value. 

1. Food — Legs only, 2. Insect destroyers. 

X. Nativity of Frogs and Toads. 




metamorphosis of the frog. 

1, egg; 2, egg partly incubated; 3, newly hatched tadpole; 4 tad- 
pole with gills; 5, outside gills replaced by internal ones; 6, tad- 
pole with hind limbs; 7, tadpole with four limbs; 8, tadpole with 
rudimental tail; 9, adult frog. 



I had rather be a toad, 
And live upon the vapor of a dungeon, 
Than keep a corner in the thing I love, 
For others' uses. 



— Shakespeare. 



Questions on Frogs and Toads. 



To which class of reptiles do frogs and toads belong? 
Explain the structure of the tongue in these reptiles. 
Describe the appearance of an adult frog. 1073. 
Name the different stages of development. 
When are frogs said to "live on their tails"? 
Do they live in water entirely? If not, why not? 
Which are able to swim better, frogs or toads ? Why ? 
How many eggs are usually laid in a season by frogs ? 
What sounds are made by frogs and toads ? 
What is the name of the largest species of frogs? 
In what respect do frogs resemble toads? How do they differ? 
Learn the poem, "Twenty Froggies Went to School." 

201 



Frogs at School. 



Twenty froggies went to school 
Down beside a rushy pool ; 
Twenty little coats of green, 
Twenty vests all white and clean. 
"We must be in time," said they ; 
"First we study, then we play ; 
That is how we keep the rule 
When we froggies go to school." 



Master Bullfrog, grave and stern, 

Called the classes in their turn ; 

Taught them how to nobly strive, 

Likewise how to leap and dive ; 

From his seat upon a log 

Showed them how to say "Ker-chog" ; 

Also how to dodge a blow 

From the stones which bad boys throw. 



Twenty froggies grew up fast ; 
Bullfrogs they became at last ; 
Not one dunce among the lot, 
Not one lesson they forgot ; 
Polished in a high degree, 
As each froggie ought to be ; 
Now they sit on other logs 
Teaching other little frogs. 







1. Twen>t7 frog •gies went to school 

2. Maa • ter Bull • frog.grave aild stem, 

3. Twen • ty " frog - gies grew up fast; 

-# * — : r-# »■ 



Down Vieside a rush • y pool; 

Called the class - es in their turn; 

Bull-frogs they became at last; 







Twenty lit - tie coats of green, Twen-ty vests 
Taught them how to no • bly strive. Likewise how 
Not one dunce a • mong the lot, Not one lea - 



all 
to' 
son 




white and clean. 

leap and dive; 

they for -got; 

r—f- 



n 



^: 



I 



m 



m 



a^s^ 



^ 



-^-*- 



— *- 



"We must be in time," said they; "First we stud- y, 
From his seat up -' on a log Showed them how to 
Pol-ishedin a » high degree. As each frog -gie 
-0-i »- • .,. -i ft. 



m m^^^ 



~m 



then we playy 
say " Ee^chog;^' 
■ought to be: 
_^-i /•_•.- 



That \U how 
^Al • ao bow 
Now they sit 



-0- 
we 
to 



11 



5=^sr5:r: 



l^-nt 



i^^B 



^^ 



m 



keep the rule, 

dodge a blow 

otb • er logs 

—♦-2 (K_A. 



tHQ2 



""• — *~^ - ' • -#, 

■When we frog -gies go to school," 
From the stones which bad boys throw. 
Teach-iog oth- er lit « tie fiogs^ 

-/ •■ **^ ? 
« — rr_, C 0*.. 



TT' "~P'" h 



Angling. 



The pleasant'st angling is to see the fish 
Cut with her golden oars the silver stream. 
And greedily devour the treacherous bait. 

— Shakespeare. 

202 



Tortoise. 



I. Class — Reptiles. 

II. Homes — In marshes, on dry land, in water. 

III. Description. 

1. Skeleton. 

A. Carapace — Upper part. 

B. Plastron — Lower part. 

2. Size and weight. 

3. Age — Sometimes 100 years. 

IV. Eggs. 

1. Number. 

2. Where deposited. 

3. Hatching. 

V. Habits. 

1. Protrudes head, legs, and tail when walking or swimming. 

2. Draws them in while resting. 

3. Closes plates, or bony shell, tightly for protection in danger. 

VI. Species. 

1. Salt-marsh terrapin — Atlantic coast of North America. 

2. Green turtle — West Indies and Gulf of Mexico. 

3. Loggerhead — Atlantic coast of America and Europe. 

4. Hawksbill — Warmer parts of America. 

5. Snapping turtle — Florida and New Brunswick. 

VII. Use. 

1. Article of food. 

2. Shell — Ornamental work, combs, toilet boxes, etc. 




GREEN TURTLE. TORTOISE. 

Questions on the Tortoise. 

Describe the skeleton of the tortoise. 2899. 

Of what is the carapace formed? The plastron? 

What means of protection does the tortoise use when endangered ? 

How are the eggs cared for during incubation? 

What can you say of the largest tortoises ? 

Which move with greater speed, land or sea tortoises ? 

Name and describe several species. Which is noted for its delicate flesh ? 

From which species is the tortoise shell of commerce obtained ? 

Name some species of tortoises common to North America. 

Are these reptiles of economic value? 

Relate the story of The Tortoise and the Hare, 

203 




Astronomy 



He telleth the number of the stars ; He calleth them all by 
their names. — Psalm 147, 4. 

ASTRONOMY, the most ancient of the sciences, treats of the phenomena 
of the heavenly bodies. It may be studied by departments, or branches, 
but these overlap each other to a large extent. However, they should be 
observed in a consecutive order. 

The student is first referred to the article entitled Astronomy, which intro- 
duces the subject by definitions and information of a general nature. The next 
step is to read the general articles in the order in which the science is generally 
subdivided. These include principally Solar System, Planets, Satellites, 
Time, Stars, Comet, Nebula, Constellations, etc. With these should be cor- 
related the biographies and achievements of famous astronomers. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia will be found very helpful 
— in fact, indispensable — in the study of astronomical phenomena. Consult it 
for information on Day, Night, Seasons, Tides, and many related topics. The 
helpful information, clearly classified as it is in this work, adds interest to this 
ever-interesting science. 



Outline for Study. 



I. Astronomy as a Science. 

1. Relation to other sciences 

II. History. 

1. Assyria. 

2. Hindu. 

3. Egyptian. 

4. Chaldaea. 

III. Value. 
1 
2 
3 
4 



2. Old and ancestral. 

5. Greece. 

6. China. 

a. Peculiar laws. 

b. Superstitious ideas of eclipse. 



Fixes disputed dates. 

Helped in making calendar. 

Aided navigation. 

Gave knowledge of exact size of earth. 

5. Enabled making of proper maps of continents and oceans. 

6. Aids materially in general surveying. 

7. Determines exact units of time. 
IV. Astronomers. 

1. Thales. 

Founder of the science. 
Date and discoveries. 
Teaching, 

204 



V. 



2. 


Pythagoras. 


6. Kepler. 




Teaching. 


Laws of. 




Demonstration. 


7. Galileo. 


3. 


Hipparchus. 


Telescope. 




Beginner of history proper. 


8. Newton. 




Date and nativity. 


Gravitation. 




Charts of heavens. 


9. Laplace. 


4. 


Ptolemy. 


Satellites of Jupiter. 




Erroneous teaching. 


Rings of Saturn. 


5. 


Copernicus. 


10. Donati, Brahe, Halley, Herschel, 




Date. 


Yerkes, etc. 




System. 




jE 


NERAL Subjects. 




1. 


Apsides. 




2 


Soiar system. 

a. Sun — Center of our system. 

b. Major planets — Satellites. 






c. Minor planets, or asteroids, and comets. 




d. Meteoroids — Furnish zodiacal li 


ght. 




e. Rings of Saturn. 






f. Nebular hypothesis. 


I^HHBHBHHIHHHiil^lH 




g. Solar phenomena. 


H^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^I^^^H 




1. Records. , 


H^H^^^H^^^^^^^I^^^^H 




2. Largest spots. 


^Hj^^^JH^^^^^^^H^^^H 




3. Periodical variations. j 


I^HHU^^^^^^H^JHH^H 




4. Appearances. j 


^^^^^^^bH^^I^^^I^^HhI 




5. Influences. 


^H^h^^^^hISHI^^^^^I 




h. Spectrum. 


HH|H^^H|^^HBH|^H 




1. Analysis. 


^^H^^^^^^HH^HB^^^^H 




2. Spectroscope. 


^I^^^^^^H^^H^^^I^^R 




3. Light. 


^^HH^^^HhUH^^^^^^H 




4. Rainbow. 


mmm^^mmBJiHjj^^i 


3. 


Moon. 

a. Comparative size and weight. 

b. Light reflected from sun. 

c. Changes or phases. 

d. Effect on tides. 


DONATI'S COMET. 


4. 


Planets, 
a. Primary — Planets proper. 






1. Inferior — Mercury and Venus. 




2. Superior or major — Mars, Jupiter, Sa.turn, Uranus, Neptune. 




3. Minor — Number and size. 






4. Orbits of heavenly bodies. 






5. Symbols. 






a. Number of. 






b. Origin and significatior 


1. 


5. 


Stars. 






a. Constellations. 


6. Orion. 




1. Magnitude. 


7. Ursa. 




2. Centaur. 


a. Major. 




3. Milky Way. 


b. Minor. 




4. Zodiac. 


8. Periodical or varia- 




a. Signs of. 


ble. 




5. Cassiopeia. 


9. Double and multiple, 


6. 


Comets — Cause and nature of. 






a. Biela's. 


c. Encke's. 




b. Donati's. 


d. Halley's. 



205 



VI. Branches. 

1. Astronomical geography. 

2. Uranography. 

3. Sidereal astronomy. 

4. Physical astronomy. 

VII. Observatories. 

1. First one — Alexandria. 

2. Arabian. 

3. Persian, 

4. European. 

5. American. 

a. United States. 

b. Canada. 

VIII. Instruments. 

1. Telescope. 

2. Barometer. 

3. Chronometer. 

4. Circle. 

5. Clock. 

6. Quadrant. 

7. Sextant. 

8. Chronograph. 

9. Micrometer. 

IX. Time. 

1. Year. 

a. Solar, tropical, or equi- 

noctial. 

b. Sidereal. 

c. Common. 



d. Leap year. 

e. Civil. 

f. Lunar, 

g. Ecclesiastical, 
h. Divisions. 

1. Month. 

Average length. 

Number. 

Names and their 

origin. 
Lunar or synodical. 
Sidereal. 
Anomalistic. 
Solar. 
Calendar. 

2. Week. 

When instituted. 
Number of days. 
Naming of days. 

3. Day. 

Division. 

Cause. 

Kinds. 

a. Solar. 

b. Sidereal. 

c. Civil. 

d. Apparent. 

e. Astronom- 

ical. 



Correlated Subjects. 



Aberration. 


Cycle. 


Milky Way. 


Seasons. 


Apogee. 


Earth.' 


Moon. 


Sextant. 


Asteroid. 


Eclipse. 


Nadir. 


Solar System 


Astrology. 


Ecliptic. 


Nebula. 


Spectroscope. 


Aurora Bore- 


Equator. 


Nutation. 


Stars. 


alis. 


Equinox. 


Observatory. 


Sun. 


Calendar. 


Gravitation. 


Parallax. 


Telescope. 


Chronograph. 


Greenwich. 


Perturbation. 


Tides. 


Chronometer. 


Halo. 


Planets. 


Transit. 


Circle. 


Latitude. 


Pole. 


Twilight. 


Comet. 


Longitude. 


Precession. 


Year. 


Conjunction. 


Meridian. * 


Refraction. 


Zenith. 


Constella- 


Meteor. 


Satellite. 


Zodiac. 


tions. 


Micrometer. 







206 



Questions on Astronomy. 

How does the history of astronomy compare with that of the other sciences ? 

What is the story of the shepherds and the stars ? 

Tell where the following is found: "The heavens declare the glory of God 
and the firmament showeth His handiwork." 

Which nations studied this science centuries before the Christian era? 

What was the theory of the Chinese regarding eclipses. 

Who was the early founder of the science of astronomy? With whom does 
its history proper begin? 173. 

State and explain Kepler's laws. 

By whom was gravitation discovered? How is gravity modified? 

Give a brief sketch of the life of Galileo. 

State some uses of astronomy. Is it an exact science? 

Name several branches of this science. 

Prepare an article on comets. What brought Halley's name prominently 
before the world in recent years? 

Give a list of the chief symbols used in astronomy. 

What instruments are used? Describe a quadrant. 

Compare the sun, moon, and earth in size and in motion. 

Define ecliptic, satellite, meteor, corona, cycle, zenith. 

Name the major planets in the order of size. 

Distinguish between variable, temporary, and fixed stars. 

Name and locate some noted observatories. 

How do you account for the change of seasons ? For the rainbow ? 



Literature. 

The contemplation of celestial things will make a man both speak and think more 
sublimely and magnificently when he descends to human affairs. 

— Cicero. 

The smallest dust which floats upon the wind 
Bears this strong impress of the Eternal mind : 
In mystery round it subtile forces roll, 
And gravitation binds and guides the whole. 

— Selected. 

Be like the sun that pours its ray 

To glad and glorify the day; 

Be like the moon that sheds its light 

To bless and beautify the night; 

Be like the stars that sparkle on, 

Altho' the sun and moon are gone ; 

Be like the skies that steadfast are, ' 

Though absent sun and moon and star. 

— Selected. 

The sun is not a-bed when I 

At night upon my pillow lie ; 

Still round the earth his way he takes, 

And morning after morning makes. 

While here at home at shining day. 
We round the sunny garden play. 
Each little Indian sleepy-head 
Is being kissed and put to bed. 

And when at eve I rise for tea, 
Day dawns beyond the Atlantic sea; 
And all the children in the West 
Are getting up and being dressed. 

— Robert Louis Stevenson. 

207 



Geology 





The attempt to convey scientific conceptions, without the appeal 
to observation, which can alone give such conceptions firmness 
and reality, appears to me to be in direct antagonism to the funda- 
mental principles of scientific education. 

— Huxley. 



THE study of geology, which investigates the structure of the earth, is 
treated under the general title Geology. It answers the questions — Of 
what materials is the earth composed ? What causes produced the present 
arrangement of these materials? Are geological forces still active in producing 
changes ? 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is recommended as a refer- 
ence in the study of geology. It contains hundreds of articles on mineralogical 
subjects, such as may be grouped under the general headings of gems, stones, 
fossils, and alluvial deposits. The student is referred to the following 



Correlated Subjects. 



Algonkian. 

Archaean. 

Basalt. 

Bed. 

Boulder. 

Cambrian. 

Carboniferous 

Age. 
Chalk. 
Cinnabar. 
Clay. 
Cleavage. 
Coal. 



Cretaceous 

Period. 
Crystallography. 
Dike. 

Earthquake. 
Eocene. 
Erosion. 
Erratics. 
Fault. 

Flood Plain. 
Fossil. 
Glaciers. 
Igneous. 
Joints. 



Jurassic. 

Lava. 

Loess. 

Mammoth. 

Marl. 

Metamorphic 

Rocks. 
Mineralogy. 
Mountain. 
Niagara Series. 
Obsidian. 
Oolite. 
Ordovician. 
Ore. 



Peat. 

Pliocene. 

Quaternary. 

Sandstone. 

Shale. 

Silurian System. 

Soil. 

Stones, Precious. 

Stratification. 

Terrace. 

Tertiary Period. 

Triassic System. 

Valley. 

Volcano. 



Outlines in Geology. 

I. Department of Natural Science. 

1. Treatment. 2. Investigation. 

3. Study. 

A. Early students. 

a. Herodotus. 

1. Studied carefully formation and fertility of soil, in Egypt, 
and traced cause. 

b. Strabo. 

1. Greatest of early geologists. 

2. Flourished in 1st century. 3. Discussed origin of fossils. 

c. Werner. 

1. Gave modern geology its. widespread interest. 2. Theories. 

d. Hutton. 

1. Directed attention to causes now existing in periodical for- 
mations. 

208 



3. Held contrary view to Werner. 
3. Published Theory of the Earth. 
B. Present schools. 

a. Catastrophism. 

1. Series of creations and catastrophes. 
3. Representatives. 

b. Uniformitarianism. 

1. Reasons of all geologic phenomena constituted by causes 

now in operation. 
3. Representatives. 

c. Evolution. 

1. Similar to above. 
3. Representatives 

3. Theory regarding time required for production of the pres- 
ent conditions. 

d. General theory. 

1. Interior and surface of earth once highly heated. 
3. Cooled gradually. 

3. Crust formed. 

4. Action of water and heat. 

5. Rock formations. 
II. Life Periods. 

1. Archaean time — Dawn of life. 

A. Extremely high temperature. 

B. Creation of simpler forms. 

C. North America largely submerged. 
D'. Formation of iron. 

3. Paleozoic. 

A. Fossil remains. 

a. Mollusks, protozoa, radiates, and articulates. 

3. Silurian, or Age of Invertebrates. 

A. Rocks under water — Consisted of limestone, sandstone, and shales. 

B. Formed of clams, oysters, etc. 

4. Devonian Age. 

A. First vertebrate fishes. 

B. Plants became abundant. 

C. Appearance of vast swarms of insects. 

5. Carboniferous Age. 

A. Surface covered with gigantic fernlike and other plants. 

B. Formation of coal beds. 

C. Alternated elevations and subsidences. 

D. Animals of the subkingdoms lived. 

E. Reptiles began to appear. 

6. Mesozoic time, or Age of Reptiles. 

A. Numerous reptiles abounded. 

B. Plants and animals began to resemble existing species. 

C. Ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus common. 

D. Great birds left foot imprints as fossil remains on forming rocks. 

7. Cenozoic time. 

A. North America largely above the sea. 

B. Abundance of fresh-water lakes. 

C. Abundant vegetation in Arctic Zone — Redwood, magnolia, etc. 

D. Large animals abundant in Rocky Mountains. 

E. Glacial period. 

a. Swept over northeastern portion of continent. 

b. Destructive drifts and boulders prevailed. 

209 



III. 



F. Champlain period. 

a. Alternating floods and varying climates. 

b. Return of tropical climate. 

c. Gradual fall of temperature. 
Quaternary Age. 

A. Present animals and plants appeared. 

B. Creation of man. 



Geologists. 








Agassiz. 


Dawson. 


Le Conte. 


Silliman. 


Buck land. 


Geikie. 


Lyell. 


Smith. 


Buffon. 
Cuvier. 


Hayden. 


Miller. 


Strabo. 


Dana. 


Hitchcock. 


Murchison. 


Tyndall. 


Darwin. 


Huxley. 


Powell. 


Winchell 



Questions on Geology. 

Of what does geology treat? What are fossils? 1114. 

Distinguish between geology and mineralogy. 

Name some early students of geology and state the theories they advanced. 

What are the three recognized schools of geology to-day? 

To which school does Lyell belong ? How does he support his opinions ? 

Explain what is meant by igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. 

Name the principal life periods. In which do we live? 

How may earthquakes and volcanoes be accounted for? 

Briefly describe Geological Survey. 

What caused the elevations and depressions on the earth's surface? 

What wa§ the glacial period ? By what other name is it known ? 

What is meant by Azoic and Eozoic ? 

Speak of the Age of Reptiles and the Carboniferous Age. 



Bugle Song. 

The splendor falls on castle walls 

And snowy summits old in story, 
The long light shakes across the lakes, 

And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 
Blow, bugle, blow ! set the wild echoes flying ; 
Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes — dying, dying, dying ! 

O hark, O hear ! how thin and clear. 

And thinner, clearer, farther going ! 
O sweet and far, from cliff and scar, 

The horns of Elfland faintly blowing ! 
Blow ! let us hear the purple glens replying : 
Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes — dying, dying, dying ! 

O love! they die in yon rich sky: 

They faint on hill, or field or river ; 
OUR echoes roll from soul to soul. 

And GROW forever and forever. 
Blow, bugle, blow ! set the wild echoes flying ; 
And answer, echoes, answer — dying, dying, dying ! 

— Tennyson. 

210 



Coal. 



I. Description. 

1. Carbonaceous mineral. 

2. Appearance. 

3. Use. 

4. Composition. 

A. Carbon. 

B. Hydrogen. 

C. Oxygen. 

D. Nitrogen. 

E. Earthy impurities. 

5. Formation. 

A. Vegetable matter. 

a. Luxuriant growth accumulated. 

b. Decomposed. 

c. Compressed and chemically changed. 

d. Solidified and reduced. 

II. Kinds. 

1. Anthracite — 90 per cent, carbon. 

A. Burns with little flame. 

B. Much used in kilns furnaces, and by blacksmiths. 

C. Most valuable. 

2. Bituminous. 

A. Used for fuel in heating and in engines. 

B. Greatly exceeds in output. 

3. Cannel. 

A. Appearance. 

B. Flame. 

C. Used in gas making. 

4. Lignite or brown — 50 per cent, carbon. 

A. Used less for manufacturing purposes. 

B. Valuable for fuel in sections where other coal is minus. 

C. Bums easily with extra draft admitted. 

Ill Veins. 

1. Number — 1 to 4. 

3. Thickness— 2 ft. to 50 ft. 

3. Deposits. 

A. Drifts, or pockets. 

B. Measures. 

IV. Mining. 

1. Differing of methods. 

A. Thickness of veins. 

B. Class of coal. 

C. Character of roof. 

D. Blasting. 

E. Long-wall work. 

F. Mining machinery. 

2. Slopes. 

A. Coal crops out at hillsides. 

B. Opening and sloping inroad made into hillside. 

3. Shaft. 

A. Perpendicular passage sunk to veins of coal many feet below. 

B. Entries driven and rooms made. 

C. Coal obtained by picking, sledging, blasting, or drilling. 

D. Brought to surface by cages. 

211 



V. History. 

1. Not known to early ancients. 

2. Used in 852 a. d. in England. 

3. Common prejudice prevented early usage. 

VI. Distribution. 

1. United States. 

A. Found in 35 states and territories. 

B. Products in 29 reached commercial quantities. 
C Leading producers. 

a. Pennsylvania. ^- Alabama. 

b. West Virginia. f- Indiana. 

c. Illinois. S- Colorado. 

d. Ohio. 

D. Annual production and value. 
3. Canada. 

A. Annual output. 

B. Deposits. 

a. British Columbia. 

b. Nova Scotia. 

c. New Brunswick. 

d. Alberta. 

3. Great Britain. 

4. Germany. ' 

5. Austria-Hungary. 

6. Russia. 

7. Philippine Islands, and others. 

Coal in Literature. 

" Sing a song of coal in a mine so deep, 
Where the mighty mountain guarding watch doth keep. 
Down must go the miner in the ground so damp, 
Each one with his pickax and his tiny lamp. 

^-Jessie L. Gaynor. 

Not many years ago men would have laughed, had they been told to dig for the rays of 
the sun in the darkness of the earth. But we strike a match and discover that the black 
heart of the coal is the treasury of sunbeams. — Newman Smyth. 



Questions on Coal. 

What is coal and of what is it composed? 609. 

Explain briefly the formation of the coal beds. 

Name several kinds of coal. Which is most valuable? 

Which kind of coal contains the greatest per cent, of carbon? Why is lig- 
nite coal of lesser value? 

What is a coal measure? State the difference between a slope and a shaft. 

Illustrate coal stratum with a drawing. 

At about what date was coal first used for fuel in England? 

Where are the chief deposits of coal in England? What is the annual 
output ? 

State the value of the annual production of coal in the United States. Name 
the leading coal-producing states. 

What serious objection was raised against the use of coal in early days? 

Name some of the greatest coal-producing countries of the world. 

212 



Gold. 



I. Description. 

1. Precious metal. 

3. Color, bright yellow. 

3. Specific gravity — 19. 

4. Atomic weight — 196. 

5. Melting point— About 2283° Fahr. 

6. Properties. 

A. Ductility — Grain can be drawn into wire 500 ft. long, or same 

amount is sufficient to gild two miles of silver wire. 

B. Malleability — One grain may be beaten out so as to cover 56 sq. in. 

(thickness, gsTgso P^^^ '^^ ^" inch). 

II. Characteristics. 

1. Not acted upon by water and oxygen. 

2. Not tarnished by air. 

3. Not soluble by hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric acids. 

4. Soluble in mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids. 

5. Crystallizes in cubes and other regular forms. 

6. Yields aurous and auric salts. 

III. Kinds. 

1. Pure gold. 

A. 24 carats fine. 

B. Very soft. 

2. Alloy. 

A. 54 copper and ^ gold, usually used by jewelers. 

B. 14 to 18 carats fine commonly used. 

3. Coinage. 

A. Standard 22 carats fine — 2 parts copper and 22 parts gold. 

4. Nature. 

A. Gold and silver alloy. 

B. Used in medicine and by dentists. 

IV. Where Found. 

1. In alluvial deposits (placer mining). 

A. Small particles, called grains or nuggets. 

B. Separated from foreign matter by washing in troughs and pans. 

2. In sandstone, slate, quartzite, granite, and serpentine. 

3. In fissures or quartz veins. 

A. Mined by machinery. 

B. Rock crushed. 

C. Gold separated by excessive heat. 

D. Natural gas, coal, and electricity employed as agents in smelting. 

E. Refined by repeated subjection to heat. 

V. CupellatiOn. 

1. Extracted from ore by pulverizing. 

3. Sulphur and arsenic set free by heating gold-bearing pyrites. 

3. Quantity of mercury and sodium added. 

4. This amalgam heated to liberate the mercury. 

VI. Use. 

1. Coin. 

2. Jewelry. 

3. Dentistry. 

4. Medicine. 

5. Photography. 

213 



VII. Distribution, 

1. North America, 

A. United States, 

a. California. 

b. Montana. 

c. South Dakota. 

d. Utah. 

e. Arizona. 

f. New Mexico, etc, 

B. Canada. 

a, British Columbia, 

b, Yukon. 

c, Saskatchewan. 

C. Alaska — Klondike. 

2. South America. 

A. Peru. 

B. Bolivia, 



3. New Zealand. 

4. South Africa, 

5. Ural Mountains. 
VIII. Statistics. 

1. Value of world's production 

since 1493. 

2. Present annual production. 

3. Comparative outputs. 

a. North America. 

b. South America. 

c. Europe, 

d. Asia. 

e. Africa. 

f. Australia. 

4. Largest pure gold nugget, 

a. Where found. 

b. Date. 

c. Weight, 



Gold in Literature. 

All that glistens is not gold, 
Often have you heard that told ; 
Many a man his life hath sold 
But my outside to behold. 

— Shakespeare. 

Can gold calm passion, or make reason shine? 
Can we dig peace, or wisdom, from the mine? 
Wisdom to gold prefer; for 'tis much less 
To make our fortune than our happiness. 

— Young. 

Gold ! gold ! gold ! gold ! 

Bright and yellow, hard and cold, 

Molten, graven, hammer'd, and roU'd ; 

Heavy to get, and light to hold ; 

Hoarded, barter'd, bought, and sold 

To the very verge of the churchyard mold ; 

Price of many a crime untold ; 

Gold ! gold ! gold ! gold ! 

Good or bad a thousand fold! 

How widely its agencies vary — 

To save — to ruin — to curse — to bless — 

As even its minted coins express. 

Now stamped with the image of good Queen Bess, 

And now with a bloody Mary. 

— Hood. 

Questions on Gold. 

Compare the value of gold with that of other metals. 
For what three things is it noted? 
State some of its characteristics. 1161, 
With what metals is gold alloyed? 
How many carats are generally used in jewelry? 
Name some gold coins now in use. 
Give a list of articles of jewelry made of gold. 
How is gold refined? Illustrate its malleability. 
Where is this metal first mentioned in the Bible? 

Tell when the gold fields were opened in the following places: California, 
Alaska, and Australia, 

What and where is the Klondike region ? 1514. 
Locate the most important gold fields of United States and Canada. 

214 



Iron. 

I. Description. 

1. Metal. 

3. Mixed with clay, earth, and rock. 

3. Found in sea water and mineral water. 

4. Essential constituent of plants and animals. 

5. Pure metal— Silvery-white, very tenacious, malleable, and ductile. 

6. Commercial product — Derived from ores. 

A. Magnetite. C. Limonite. 

B. Hematite. D. Siderite. 

7. Compounds. ' 

A. Sulphur. D. Carbon. 

B. Copper. E. Arsenic. 

C. Silicon. F. Phosphorus, etc. 

II. Kinds. 

1. Cast iron. 

A. Commercial iron. 

B. Produced in blast furnace. 

C. Contains much carbon. 

D. Easily cast in molds. 

E. Neither ductile nor malleable. 

F. Pig iron. 

a. Form of cast iron. 

b. Heated metal run into molds called pigs. 

2. Wrought iron. 

A. Fibrous. D. Produced in a puddling furnace or forge, 

B. Ductile. E. Quite pure. 

C. Malleable. 

4. Weld iron, bar iron, steel 

A. Compounds of iron. 

B. Compare with others. 

C. Can be forged, tempered, and cast. 

D. Hardened by heating to redness and cooling quickly. 

III. Iron Industry. 

1. Mining — Blasting and shoveling. 

2. Transportation — From mines to smelters. 

3. Smelting. 

A. Crushed by rollers. 4. Manufacture. 

B. Heated in furnaces. 1. Improvements. 

C. Tapped. A. Cort. 

D. Molded. B. Dalton. 

E. Cooled. C. Bessemer. 

IV. History. 

1. One of the earliest known metals. 

2. Mentioned in Bible. 

3. Represented in Egyptian sepulcher. 

4. Its discovery at Mount Ida. 

5. Deposits of India, Italy, Britain, and Spain. 

6. Discovery of deposits in North Carolina. 

7. Establishing and use of blast furnaces. 

V. Items of Interest. 

1. United States ranks first in production of pig iron. 

2. Two-thirds of iron ore is obtained from Lake Superior region. 

3. Pennsylvania leads in the manufacture of iron products. 

4. Minnesota ranks first in the output of iron. 

5. First blast furnace operated under direction of William Penn. 

6. First rolling mill established in 1817, at Plumstock, Pa. 

215 



VI. 



VII. 



Production and Distribution. 






1. World's production in 1908. 






A. United States. 




D. France. 


B. Germany. 




E. Canada. 


C. Great Britain. 




F. Other countries. 


Uses. 






1. Machinery. 


6. 


Castings. 


3. Utensils. 


7. 


Stoves. 


3. Tools. 


8. 


Framework of buildings, 


4. Railroad ties, rails, spikes, etc. 


9. 


Wire and nails. 


5. Bridges. 


10. 


Medicine, etc. 



Questions on Iron. 

Name four classes of iron. 1410, 
With what metals is iron combined and why? 
Describe cast iron. What is pig iron? 
What medicinal properties has iron? 

Name the leading iron-producing states. In what does Pennsylvania lead? 
Why is the iron industry of the Southern States making rapid progress? 
Describe the Catalan furnace. 
What materials are used for fuel for smelting? 

Who is spoken of as "instructor of every artificer of brass and iron"? 
How do Canada and the United States rank among the nations in the pro- 
duction of iron? 

Name ten things in your home made of some form of iron. 
Explain what is meant by the Iron Age. 

What useful improvements in the iron industry were made by Cort? 
Who discovered the method of converting crude iron into steel? 

Old Ironsides. 

Ay, tear her tattered ensign down! 

Long has it waved on high, 
And many an eye has danced to see 

That banner in the sky ; 
Beneath it rang the battle-shout. 

And burst the cannon's roar ; — 
The meteor of the ocean air 

Shall sweep the clouds no more ! 

Her deck, once red with heroes' blood, 

Where knelt the vanquished foe, 
. When winds were hurrying o'er the flood. 

And waves were white below, 
No more shall feel the victor's tread, 

Or know the conquered knee ; — 
The harpies of the shore shall pluck 

The eagles of the sea ! ' - 

Oh, better that her shattered hulk 

Should sink beneath the wave ; 
Her thunders shook the mighty deep, 

And there should be her grave ; 
Nail to the mast her holy flag, 

Set every threadbare sail, 
And give her to the god of storms — 

The lightning and the gale! 

— Holmes. 

216 



Asbe^os. 



I. Description. 

1. Composition — Magnesia, lime, iron-oxide. 

2. Silky mineral fiber. 

3. Will not burn. 

4. Some flexible and elastic ; others brittle and stiff. 

II. Deposits. 

1. All grand divisions. 

A. United States. 

a. Georgia. 

Sail Mountain — Has ledge 800 feet long, 350 feet wide, and 
of great depth. 

b. Montana. 

B. Canada. 

a. Pure white. 

b. Long fibers. 

c. Can be spun into yarn ; made into rope. 

III. Classes. 

1. True asbestos. 

A. Rock-cork — Soft, light, and easily cut. 

B. Rock-leather. 

C. Rock-wood. 

2. Chrysolite. 

IV. Uses. 

1. Modern. ' 

A. Asbestos cement. 

B. Quick-setting plaster. 

C. Fireproof roofing, stage curtains, firemen's clothing. 

D. Deadening walls and floors. 

E. Sectional coverings for pipes and boilers. 

F. Insulator in electric mechanisms. 

G. Fireproof coat in paint. 

2. Ancient. 

A. Absorbent in lamp wicking. 

B. Embalming robes for dead bodies, ashes being thus preserved when 

body is placed on the funeral pile for cremation. 



Questions on Asbestos. 

Is asbestos an element? Give reasons for your answer. 

What is the most valuable property of asbestos ? 

State several uses of it. 

Where is it found most extensively? Compare the American product with 
that of other parts of the world. 

What is known of the deposits in Canada? Name two articles of manu- 
facture made from the Canadian product. 

Why is it especially beneficial in making curtains for theaters? 

How was this mineral used by the ancients? 

What do you know of the extent of the use of asbestos? 



Nought in this life without much toil is bought. 

In this world of ours, 

The path to what we want ne'er runs on flowers. 

— Horace. 

217 



Alum. 



I. History. 

II. Classes. 

1. Potassium alum. 

2. Ammonium alum. 

3. Sodium alum. 

III. Description. 

1. Double salt. 

2. Constituents. 

A. Alumnia. 

B. Alkali. 

a. With potash. 

b. With ammonia. 

c. With soda. 

C. Sulphuric acid. 

D. Water. 

3. White and stringent. 



IV. 



V. 



Kinds. 

1. Natural. 

A. From alum ore. 

B. Found in lower coal 

measures. 

2. Manufactured. 

A. For commerce. 

B. Burnt alum. 
Use. 

1. Preparing skins. 

2. Mordant in calico printing. 

3. Glazing paper. 

4. Bread and pastry. 

5. Clarifying liquors. 

6. Harden tallow, fats, etc. 

7. Baking powders. 

8. Medicine. 

9. Arts. 



Questions on Alum. 

How long has alum been manufactured ? 
Where was it known and manufactured in the 7th century ? 
What is the effect of alum applied to the flesh? Would you consider it 
healthful to use it in whitening bread ? 

What is burnt alum and for what is it used? 

Name the three general classes. Upon what do they depend? 

What useful property has it in dyeing? 

In what is it used to harden ? 



Break, Break, Break. 

Break, break, break. 

On thy cold gray stones, O sea ! 

And I would that my tongue could utter 

The thoughts that arise in me. 

O well for the fisherman's boy, 

That he shouts with his sister at play ! 

O well for the sailor lad, 

That he sings in his boat on the bay ! 

And the stately ships go on 

To their haven under the hill; 

But O for the touch of a vanished hand, 

And the sound of a voice that is still ! 

Break, break, break. 

At the foot of thy crags, O sea ! 

But the tender grace of a day that is dead 

Will never come back to me. 

— Tennyson. 

218 



Aluminium. 



I. Discovery. 


4. Form. 


II. Description. 


A. Drawn into fine wire 


1. Metal. 


thread. 


A. Qualities. 


B. Rolled into thin foil. 


a. Ductile. 


5. Alloyed with copper, steel, 


b. Malleable. 


etc. 


c. Sonorous. 




B. Weight. 


IV. Use. 


C. Color. 


1. Ornaments. 


D. With what found. 


2. Scientific instruments. 


a. Clay. 


3. Bells. 


b. Mica. 


4. Bicycles. 


c. Spar, etc. 


5. Automobiles. 


III. Manufacture. 


6. Airships. 


1. By machinery. 


7. Bath tubs. 


2. Power employed — Electricity. 


8. Torpedo boats. 


3. Intense heat required. 


9. Stoves. 



Questions on Aluminium. 

What is aluminium? Should it be classed with the elements? 

State a peculiar fact about this metal. 

Why has the extensive use of this metal been so recent? 

For what articles is it especially adapted, owing to the fact that it does not 
rust? 

How is aluminium made available for use? With what is it alloyed? 

What are some of the most recent products made from this metal ? 

Give two reasons for using aluminium in the manufacture of stoves, bath 
tubs, airships, and automobiles. 

What two reasons can you give for the constant increase in its use? 



The Isles of the Blest. 

The Isles of the Blest, they say, 

The Isles of the Blest, 
Are peaceful and happy, by night and by day. 

Far away in the glorious West. 

They need not the moon in that land of delight, 

They need not the pale, pale star ; 
The sun is bright, by day and night, 

Where the souls of the blessed are. 

They till not the ground, they plow not the wave, 

They labor not, never ! oh, never ! 
Not a tear do they shed, not a sigh do they heave. 

They are happy, for ever and ever ! 

— Pindar. 



219 



Salt. 



I. Definition. 

II. Uses. 

1. Preserver of food. 

2. Seasoning for food. 

3. Uses in chemical and industrial arts. 

4. Mordant. 

5. For glazing coarse pottery. 

6. Giving hardness to soap. 

7. Imparting clearness to glass. 

III. Sources. 

1. Ocean water and saline lakes (3%). 

2. Salt rocks. 

3. Springs and wells. 

IV. How Obtained in Market. 

1. By evaporating or freezing water from the ocean. 

2. By mining in beds of rock salt. 

V. In What Countries Found. 

1. Michigan (Saginaw Bay). 

2. Avery Island, La. (2,000 ft. thick). 

3. Nevada and California. 

4. Canada (Chiefly in Ontario). 

5. Germany (In Brunswick and Hanover). 

6. Russia in Europe (Worked since 12th century). 

a. Crimea. b. Caucasus. 

7. China. 

8. Persia. 

9. Sahara. 

10. Various parts of Australia and other arid countries. 

VI. Annual Output. 

1. United States, 3,150,170 tons (Exceeds all others). 

2. Canada, 80,000 barrels. 



Questions on Salt. 

What per cent, of ocean water is salt, by weight ? 2507. 

What can you say of it as an essential in foods for animals? 

What are the chief uses of salt? 

Give three sources by which salt is obtained. 

What can you say of the salt deposit in the Avery Island region of Louis 
iana? 

What is the annual output of salt in tons for Canada? 

What states rank first in the production of salt ? 

How many pounds of salt for every hundred pounds of water in the Dead 
Sea? 764. 

Why is the Dead Sea so salty? 

Where is the Salton Sea? 2509. 

Speak of the largest salt lake in Turkey ; in the United States. 



Why dost thou shun the salt? that sacred pledge. 
Which once partaken blunts the sabre's edge, 
Makes even contending tribes in peace unite, 
And hated hosts seem brethren to the sight. 

— Byron. 

220 



Minerals and Mining. 

The mining industry is one of the great enterprises. Information on the 
minerals is found under their appropriate titles, as Coal, Copper, Diamond, Gold, 
Iron, Silver, etc. The student is likewise referred to the subhead Minerals under 
the states, provinces, and leading countries of the world. 




MINERS GOING TO WORK. 



I. Mining Regions. 

A. 1. Colorado, Ontario, Pennsyl- 

vania, etc. 
3. United States. 

3. Canada, Mexico, and Cen- 

tral America. 

4. Map drawing. 1. Outline 

maps. 2. Chalk mod- 
eled maps. 

a. Each country. 

b. Locate mining regions. 

c. Locate mining centers. 

5. Nature and surface of the 

country in mining re- 
gions. 

6. Minerals that . are mined in 

each region. 

7. Amount produced. 

8. Incidentally locate other re- 

gions, as agricultural, 
manufacturing, etc. 

B, 1. Study of South America, 

Europe, Asia, Africa, 
and Australia, by out- 
line above. 
2. Compare each continent with 
the other as to the ex- 
tent of the mining re- 
gions, nature and kind 
of minerals, and the 
amount produced or 
mined. 



II. Minerals. 
A. 1. Coal. 

2. Iron. 

3. Lead. 

4. Zinc. 

5. Copper. 



6. Gold. 

7. Silver. 

8. Petroleum. 

9. Stone. 
10. Diamond. 



B. Outline for study of any min- 
eral. 

1. Nature and composition. 

2. Color and weight. 

3. Where found. 

4. How obtained. 

a. Process of mining. 

1. Sinking the shaft. 

2. Digging for the min- 
eral. 

3. Separating it from 
dirt and other ma- 
terial. 

4. Taking it out 
of mine. 

b. Preparing min- 

eral for use. 

1. Clearing. 

2. Smelting. 

3. Molding. 

4. M a r k e t- 
ing and ship- 
ping. 

5. Stamping. 

Suggestion : 
minerals are found in 
the pure state and do 
not have to be taken 
through all the above 
processes. 

5. Use. 

6. Location of mines. 

a. In our own country. 

b. In other countries. 

7. Comparative amounts of pro- 

duction. 

a. In this country. 

b. In other countries. 

Suggestion : Use 
specimens of minerals, 
if possible. 



Give 

the 

process 

in 

a 

general 

way. 



Some 



221 



Questions on Minerals and Mining. 

Of what does the art of mining consist? 1795. 

When and by whom was the first exhaustive treatise on mining published? 
What inventions have greatly facilitated the mining industry? 
Give a list of the most important minerals. 

Name some minerals which occur in seams or strata. Which occur in lodes ? 
For what mineral is each of the following noted : California, Nevada, Penn- 
sylvania, Michigan, Mexico, Ontario, and Yukon? 

Where are the most valuable diamond mines ? How are diamonds obtained ? 

Explain how tin ore is prepared for the market. 

How is petroleum, or mineral oil, secured? Name some of its products. 

Explain how prospecting is done. How are shafts sunk? 

Explain the long-wall method of mining coal. 

Name some agencies for blasting. Which is used most extensively? 

Name and locate some noted schools of mining. 

State some benefits of labor unions in connection with the mining industry. 

How may mineral titles be secured? 

Name the four lines of study into which mining is divided. 

Locate the chief mineral fields of Europe. Of South America. Of Australia. 



Flint and Steel. 

The Flint and Steel — the story goes — 

Old friends by natural relation, 
Fell out, one day, and like two foes. 

Indulged in bitter altercation. 

"I'm weary," said the angry Flint, 

"Of being beat: 'tis past concealing; 
Your conduct (witness many a dint 

Upon my sides !) is most unfeeling. 

"And what reward have I to show? 

What sort of payment do you render 
To one who bears each hateful blow 

That you may blaze in transient splendor ?" 

"You seem to think yourself abused," 

The Steel replied with proper spirit ; 
"But, say, unless with me you're used. 

What praise of service do you merit? 

"Your worth, as any one may see 

(For all your feeling of defiance), 
Is simply nought, unless with me 

You keep your natural alliance." 

"True!" said the Flint; "but there's no call, 
Whate'er my worth, for you to flout it; 

My value, sir ! may be but small ; 

But think what yours would be without it!" 

— J. G. Saxe, 



222 



I. Definition. The science that treats of plants— Their structure, the functions 

of their parts, and the conditions governing their growth. 

II, Divisions. 

1. Structural or morphological — Dealing with plant structure. 

2. Physiological— Treating of the function and vital action of plants. 

3. Descriptive or systematic— Relating to classification and arrangement. 

4. Paleontological — Treating of fossil plants. 

5. Phanerogams — Flowering plants. 

6. Cryptogams — Flowerless plants. 



III. Plants. 

1. Organs of growth. 

A. Roots and rootlets. 

a. Grow downward. 

b. Gather moisture and nutri- 

tion from soil. 

B. Stems. 

a. Grow upward. 

b. Bear leaves. 

C. Leaves. 

a. Color — Greenish or brown- 

ish. 

b. Grow mostly from upper 

part of stem. 

c. Differ in form and size. 

d. One side of leaf faces the 

sky and the other is 
turned toward ground. 

2. Subsistence. 

A. Water. 

B. Earth. 

C. Air. 

a. Assimilated through roots 
and leaves. 

3. Necessary elements. 

A. Light. 

B. Heat. 

C. Moisture. 
IV. History. 

1. Not studied as long as astron- 

omy or geography, 

2. Taught in time of King Solo- 

mon. 

3. Early botany students. 

A. Theophrastus — Pupil of Aris- 

totle. 

B. Diosconides, of Asia Minor. 

C. Pliny the Elder. 



D. Otto Brunfels of Germany. 

E. Linnaeus — Swedish natural- 

ist. 

F. Bernard Jussieu — French 

scholar. 

G. Darwin. 

V. Classification. 

1. Annuals — Live one year. 

2. Biennials — Live two years. 

3. Perennials — Live year after 

year. 

4. Structure. 

A. Herbs. 

B. Undershrubs. 

C. Shrubs. 

D. Trees. 

5. Evergreen — Retain foliage the 

entire year. 

6. Deciduous — Shed leaves in the 

fall. 

7. Genus — Scientific names o f 

plants. 

8. Species — More than 120,000. 

9. Variety — Numerous. 
VI. 

1. Cryptogams. 

A. Seedless apple. 

B. Bacteria. 

C. Diatoms — Microscopic plants. 

D. Mold — Low type of growth. 

E. Rust — Fungus growth on ce- 

reals and grasses. 

F. Yeast — Fungus growth. 

G. Algae — Plants that grow in 

water. 
H. Lichens — Sort of fungus 
growth. 



223 



I. Mosses — S e V e r a 1 thousand 

species. 
J. Ferns — 4,000 species. 
K. Desmids and pond scums. 
L, Liverworts. 
M. Scouring rushes. 
N. Club mosses. 
O. Fission plants. 
2. Phanerogams. 

A. Coniferae — Pine family. 

a. Pine. f. Tamarack. 

b. Spruce. g. Cypress. 

c. Hemlock, h. Arbor Vitae. 

d. Fir. i. Cedar. 

e. Larch. j. Juniper. 

B. Angiosperms. 

a. Monocotyledons. 

1. Cat-tail family. 

2. Grass. 

3. Sedge. 

4. Arum. 

5. Spiderwort. 

6. Pickerel weed. 

7. Rush. 

8. LiHaceae (Lily) family. 

a. Wild oats. 

b. Wild onion. 

c. Common tulip. 

d. White dog-toothed vio- 
let. 

e. Wild hyacinth. 

f. Star of Bethlehem. 

g. Asparagus. 

h. Jacob's ladder. 
i, Lily-of-the-valley. 
j. Wake robin. 
k. Green briar. 

9. Amaryllis family. 

a. Daffodil. 

b. Star grass. 

10. Iris family. 

a. Crocus. 

b. Blue flag. 

c. Fleur-de-lis. 

d. Yellow flag, 

11. Orchis family. 
b. Dicotyledons. 

1. Willow family. 

a. Poplar. 

b. Cottonwood. 

c. Aspen. 

d. Weeping willow. 

2. Walnut family. 

a. Black walnut, butter- 
nut. 

b. Hickory — Pecan, pig- 
nut. 



3. Birch family. 

a. Hazelnut. 

4. Beech family. 

a. Oak — Red, black, 
white, burr. 

5. Elm family. 

a. White elm. 

b. Slippery elm. 

c. Hackberry. 

6. Mulberry family. 

7. Nettle family. 

8. Buckwheat family. 

a. Sheep sorrel. 

b. Swamp dock. 

c. Knotgrass. 

9. Pink family. 

10. Peonia family. 

a. Marsh marigold. 

1. Buttercup. 

2. Cowslip. 

b. Wild columbine. 

c. Blue larkspur. 

d. Marsh clematis. 

11. Poppy family. 

a. Dutchman's breeches. 

b. Bleeding heart. 

c. Bloodroot. 

12. Mustard family. 

a. Horse-radish. 

b. Water cress. 

c. Shepherd's purse. 

13. Rose family. 

a. Quince, pear, apple, 
haw. 

b. R a s p b e r r y, mul- 
berry, blackberry, dew- 
berry, strawberry. 

c. Wild rose, sweetbrier. 

d. Plum, peach, cherry. 

14. Pulse family. 

a. Honey locust. 

b. Clover, alfalfa. 

c. Wistaria. 

d. Wild pea, sweet pea, 
peanut. 

15. Geranium family. 

16. Vine family. 

a. Grape. 

b. Boston ivy. 

c. Virginia creeper. 

d. Woodbine. 

17. Linden family — B a s s- 

wood. 
-18. Violet family. 
19. Begonia family. 



224 



20. Cactus family. 


b. Bluebells. 


a. Night-blooming cereus. 


c. Forget-me-not. 


21. Primrose family. 


d. Blue thistle. 


22. Ginseng family. 


32. Verbena family. 


23. Parsley family. 


33. Mint family. 


a. Caraway. 


a. Catnip. 


b. Parsnip. 


b. Ground ivy. 


c. Carrot. 


c. Motherwort. 


24. Dogwood family. 


d. Garden sage. 


25. Heath family. 


34. Nightshade family. 


a. Wild honeysuckle. 


a. Bittersweet. 


b. Sheep laurel, trailing 


35. Honeysuckle family. 


arbutus, Mayflower. 


36. Composite family. 


c. Wild rosemary. 


a. Daisy. 


d. Huckleberrv, cranberry. 


b. Garden coreopsis. 


26. Olive family.^ 


c. Mayweed (Dog's 


a. Ash. 


nel). 


b. Common lilac. 


d. Marguerite. 


27. Gentian family. 


e. Ragweed. 


28. Milkweed family. 


f. Bachelor's button. 


29. Morning-glory family. 


g. Fall thistle. 


30. Phlox family. 


h. Chicory. 


31. Borage family. 


i. Dandelion. 


a. Common heliotrope. 


j. Wild lettuce. 



fen- 



Questions in Botany; 

Name three distinguishing features between plants and animals. 346. 
Upon what do plants subsist? Name the four main divisions of plants. 2232. 
Name three eminent botany students of early days. Who was the first writer 
of this subject? 

Define annual, perennial, dicotyledon, parasite. 

What are rust and yeast? How are ferns propagated? 

To what family does the apple belong? 120. 

By whom was the flowerless, seedless apple evolved? 121. 

What beverages are made from grapes, apples, corn, and agave? 

From what are asafetida, arnica, and opium made? 

State a peculiarity of the eucalyptus tree. 

What are sago, palmetto, and caoutchouc? 

Name some useful tropical plants. 

Describe tobacco, maple, and holly. 

How did the name mandrake originate? By what other name is it known? 

From what is manilla hemp made? Linseed oil? 

What are weeds? How do plants'become weeds? 

Name several species of oak. What does the name oak signify? 

Name some plants noted for their wood. 

For what is ginseng used ? By whom principally ? 

To what person and State is the celebration of Arbor day due? 

What is an aquarium and for what is it used ? 



These children of the meadows, born 
Of sunshine and of showers. 



225 



— Whit tier. 



Flowers. 



Description. 
1. Parts. 

A. Receptacle, base of flower 

B. Perianth. 

a. Sepals. 

b. Petals. 

C. Corolla. 

D. Calyx. 

E. Pistils (Female organs). 

a. Ovary. 

b. Ovules. 

c. Stigma. 

d. Style. 

F. Stamens (Male organs). 

a. Filament. 

b. Anther. 

c. Pollen. 

2. Diversities. 

A. a. Hermaphrodite. 
b. Unisexual. 

B. a. Neuter. 
b. Naked. 

C. Sessile. 

3. Inflorescence. 

A. Indeterminate. 
Axillary — Red currant. 
Raceme — Forget-me-not. 
Corymb — Red haw. 
Umbel — Carrot. 
Spike — Plantain. 
Head — Clover. 
Panicle — Oats. 

B. Determinate. 

a. Terminal — Basswood. 

b. Cyme — Chickweed. 

4. Reproduction. 

A. Manner, 
a. Transportation of pollen 

from stamen to pistil. 

B. Agencies. 

a. Insects. 

b. Birds. 

c. Falling of pollen. 

d. Blowing through air. 

C. Best results obtained from 

fertilization from differ- 
ent flowers of plants of 
same or similar species. 

5. Variations. 

A. Forms. 

B. Colors. 

C. Construction. 
II. Floriculture. 

1. Nurseries. 

2. Landscape gardening. 

3. Conservatories, hothouses, etc. 



a. 
b. 
c. 

d. 
e. 
f. 



IV. 
1. 
2. 




III. Object. 
1. Producing 
Uses. 

Beautifying earth. 
Commercial purposes. 

A. Perfume. 

B. Honey. 

C. Coloring. 

D. Medicine. 

V. Adoption of Flowers. 

1. When. 

2. Why. 

3. How chosen. 

4. Where adopted. 
A. Nations. 

a. Canada — Maple leaf. 

b. England — Rose. 

c. Egypt — Lily (Sacred). 

d. Ireland — Shamrock. 

e. Scotland — Thistle. 

f. United States — Goldenrod. 
(For states, see list.) 

VI. Artificial Flowers. 

1. By whom made. 

A. Early times. 

a. Italians. 

b. Egyptians. 

c. Romans. 

B. Present. 

a. Americans. 

b. Germans. 

c. French. 

2. Use. 

A. Millinery. 

B. Decorations. 
226 



Materials. VII. Language of Flowers. 

A. Wax. 1. Flowers are used as types to ex- 

B. Paper. press thoughts and feelings. 

C. Shell. 2. Where developed. 

D. Horn. 3. By whom. 

E. Whalebone. 4. Types in common. 

F. Rubber. A. Amaranth — Immortality. 

G. Velvet. B. Oak leaf — Power. 

H. Ribbons, etc. ^- ^?'' rosebud— Confession of 

love. 
D. White rosebud — Happy in 
love. 
5. See list. 



Questions on Flowers. 

Name the principal parts of a flower. 

When is a flower said to be perfect? When sessile? 

What is pollen and of what use is it? 2263. 

State some uses of flowers. 

How did the adoption of flowers as emblems come about? 1020. 

What flower is considered sacred in Egypt? 

How were many of the State flowers selected? 

Name the adopted floral emblems in the states of Illinois, New York, Cali- 
fornia, and Iowa. 

Give a list of at least six national flowers. 

What flowers last only one day and night ? Do flowers generally remain 
open at night? 

What is said to be the most beautiful and fragrant of flowers ? 

Who were the first to advance the art of making artificial flowers to a 
more perfect state? 

Which nations now excel in this industry? What is the value of the annual 
export of flowers from Germany and France? 

What is meant by flower language ? 

State the significance of the following : Pansy, laurel, apple blossom, violet, 
daisy, and goldenrod. 1021, 

Who is considered god of flowers ? 



Flowers in Literature. 

spake full well, in language quaint and olden, 
One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, 

When he called the flowers, so blue and golden. 
Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine. 

— Longfellow. 



In Eastern lands they talk in flowers, 
And they tell in a garland their loves and cares ; 
Each blossom that blooms in their garden bowers 
On its leaves a mystic language bears. 

— Percival. 



Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, 

Old Time is still a-flying, 
And this same flower that smiles today, 

Tomorrow will be dying. 

— Herrick. 

227 




THE fact that poetry preceded prose In the origin of Hterature indicates 
the natural desire of mankind for beauty. Poetry is the voice of imagina- 
tion, of music, of ideals; prose, of the practical affairs of life, of criti- 
cism, of the exposition of knowledge. As poetry is to literature, so is literature 
to education in general : that phase of common school education which arouses 
the desire for art and gives a finer taste for all that is best in achievement. 
Prose is to literature what the practical studies of mathematics and sciences are 
to education. A man's life could never reach its most complete achievement 
without both, but the natural instinct of man is for the ideal rather than the 
practical. The centuries when man's natural expression in all literature was in 
verse proves this. The practical must come, as it did in prose, but the natural 
desire must be satisfied first or the zest for the practical will be lost. Literature 
satisfies this natural craving of man ; it furnishes the inspiration, the personality 
of education. 

From the time savage man told of his conquests in wild, barbaric verse to 
the present-day poetry, polished in form and abounding in knowledge, narra- 
tives have been told in rhyme. When these stories swung themselves off in 
ringing stanzas which sing in spite of one's self, they fell easily under the head 
of ballads. But it is in the epics of literature that the more pretentious of these 
stories come, and the world's greatest writers have used this method of narra- 
tion. The German Nibelungenlied, the Greek Iliad and Odyssey, and the 
Anglo-Saxon Beowulf are among the most famous examples of the world's 
early epics. Coming down through the centuries of English literature, it is 
found that the most profound subject-matter — dramatic, ideal, and sustained — 
has found its expression in the epics of Paradise Lost, Faerie Quecne, and 
Idylls of the King. It was not until several centuries of development had 
passed in the British Isles that the drama found birth through the demand for 
action in literature. Prose was not developed sufficiently even in the 17th century 
to furnish an expression for the novel, yet people were eager for stories, and, 
as the masses could not read, the drama, modified and made more expressive 
of human character, was drafted into service. The lyric, the natural song of 
the poet's heart, the expression of all the emotions of mankind, has existed 
always, as the laughter and tears of the world have always existed. These forms, 
the ballad, the epic, the drama, and the lyric, furnish the basis of all poetic forms 
of expression. 

228 



Prose in the early history of the nations was merely the mode of express- 
ing facts. Historical chronicles are the earliest forms of it in Anglo-Saxon 
prose. The Reformation advanced the clearness of English prose through the 
argumentation then prevalent. The printing press made it possible to present 
political and religious views in pamphlets. From that time there was a steady, 
but slow, growth in prose expression. Humor and nature found their way into 
the heavy sentences in the latter part of the 17th century. The presence of 
these elements made the entire prose expression more elastic and variable. The 
novel naturally follows, and critical essays developed rapidly as the possibilities 
of a concise, flexible prose offered themselves to the writers of these centuries. 
To-day it hardly seems possible that our literature was ever lacking in the many 
departments which are only possible through prose — those of the essay, the novel, 
the short story, the oration, and even that of our current periodicals. 

We can scarcely estimate the wealth of our inheritance in literature. 
Everything of importance in the literature of other ages is ours through trans- 
lation, added to the magnificent production of our own English-speaking men of 
letters. The study of it should be an inspiration, not only to greater individual 
.development, but toward that of the natural life as well, through the efforts of 
our public schools. 



Studying Literature, 

BOYS and girls of the age to study literature are ready, emotionally, for 
all that is beautiful in prose and poetry; mentally, they are just at the 
stage of their development where the realization that they have power 
to make clear to themselves and others the masterpieces of literature is of the 
greatest importance. A feeling of power leads to a further desire into new 
fields of conquest. In no development of school work is this general charac- 
teristic of mankind so forcibly evident as in the study of literature. But to 
develop this trait the pupil must be allowed sufficient freedom for research work, 
must be given a chance to develop the imitative within him. The teacher must 
keep in the background, an inspiring and guiding force, but not to take away 
the zest of discovery from the pupil by giving him what he can find for himself. 
No public school course can do more than open the doors to the vast pleas- 
ures in literature : but those doors may be opened in such a way that the boys 
and girls will never care to shut them again — in fact, never can shut them 
again — against the enjoyment of companionship with the world's greatest men 
and women. The plan of research and report work through topics assigned by 
the teacher leaves the pupil the power of imitation within the bounds of his ability. 
The outline of literature following this introduction is designed to furnish 
topics for pupils' work in chronological order, so that a complete history of Eng- 
lish and American literature may stand out definitely, as well as the interpretation 
and detailed study of the individual Vv^riters. The reports assigned on these topics 
are to be presented to the class by the pupil in such a manner that notes can be 
taken and recited upon. Each writer's characteristics should be proved through 
the reading of his productions, and definite examples given to illustrate the truth 
of the subdivisions under that head. This particular part of the outline plan 
develops true critical ability in reading and brings the boys and girls to realize 

229 



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PERIODS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
230 



their ability to read good books intelligently; having realized this once, litera- 
ture of a poorer class will lose its attraction, for the poor sentiment, the lack of 
strength, the bombastic display of rhetoric will appear to them as the toys of 
their earlier years. Thus there is a possibility here which must appeal to every 
true teacher: the possibility of removing future failures in the lives of boys and 
girls, by creating an indifference to all but the best. 

English Literature. 

Old English of Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066). 

I. Historical Background. 

A. Roman conquest of Britain. 

B. Teutonic conquests. 

C. Introduction of Christianity. 

II. First Poetry and Writers. 

A. Scop and Gleeman. 

B. Beowulf: greatest Anglo-Saxon epic. 

C. Caedmon and his paraphrase. 

D. The Cynewulf cycle. 

E. Characteristics. 

a. Love of the sea and war. 

b. Background of rugged, stormy land. 

c. Gloom ; stern sense of duty. 

d. Rhythm, but no rhyme. 

III. Prose Productions and Writers. ' 

A. Alfred the Great. 

B. Bade. 

C. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 



Suggestions for Study and Questions on the Anglo-Saxon Period. 

Beowulf — Read translations in Morley's English Writers, and prepare 
report of characteristics of Anglo-Saxon literature foun-d in the poem. What 
difference is there in the treatment of nature by the Anglo-Saxon and a writer 
of to-day? Is there any analogy between the struggles in the poem and the 
struggles of the Teutons with nature? What knowledge of early customs does 
the poem give? 

How can you account for the fact that poetry precedes prose in its origin ? 

What effect did the introduction of Christianity have on the character and 
literature of the Anglo-Saxons? 

What work of this period is similar to Paradise Lost? 



The Transition Period. 

(1066-1400). 

I. Historical Background. 

A. Norman Conquest, 

B. The Crusades. 

C. Unsettled conditions of England following Norman Conquest. 

D. Final mingling of Anglo-Saxon and Norman races. 

II. General Characteristics of Period. 

A. No settled language. 

B. A period of lack of productions until the last century. 

C. First productions in English language. 

231 



III. Writers. 

A. Prose. 

1. Geoffrey of Monmouth. 

2. Sir John Mandeville. 

3. John Wychffe. 

B. Poets. 

1. John Gower. 

2. William Langland. 

3. Geoffrey Chaucer. 

a. Life. 

b. Minor poems. 

1. Legend of Good Women. 

2. Troylus and Cryseyde. 

3. House of Fame. 

c. Masterpiece. 

1. Canterbury Tales. 

a. Plan. 

b. Characteristics of early times. 

c. Chaucer's characteristics in poems. 

d. Characteristics of poetry. 

1. Influence of French and Italian hterature. 

2. Love of nature. 

3. Breadth of sympathy, 

4. Humor. 

5. Power to tell story in verse. 

6. Portrayal of character. 

e. Place. 

1. Founder of English language. 

2. Third place among English writers by some critics; fourth 

by others in poetic ability. 

3. First great English poet in time. 



Suggestions and Questions for Study. 

Why is this period called the Transition Period? 

Why is Monmouth valuable to later writers? 

What similarity is there between Mandeville's Travels and Swift's GuUiver^s 
Travels F 

Why is John Wycliffe called the "Morning Star of the Reformation"? On 
what is Wycliffe's rank as the most important prose writer of the 14th century 
based ? 

How does John Gower show the confused state of the English language in 
his time? 

What is the similarity between William Langland's Piers Plowman and 
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress f 

Into what three periods is Chaucer's work divided? 

Why does Chaucer's work close the Transition Period? 

Read the Prologue and the Knight's Tale from Dryden's translation of the 
Canterbury Tales and make reports to illustrate Chaucer's characteristics of 
humor, power of character portrayal, and love of nature. Compare Dryden's 
translation with the original verse of Chaucer to get the difference between the 
early and modern English language. 



That noble Chaucer in those former times, 
Who first enriched our Enghsh with his rhymes; 
Spoke first in mighty numbers, delving in the mine 
Of perfect knowledge. 

— Wordsworth. 

2B2 



The Fifteenth Century. 

A Period of Literary Depression. 

I. Historical Background. 

A. War of Roses. 

B. Discovery of America. 

C. Introduction of printing. 

D. Capture of Constantinople. 

II. General Characteristics. 

A. Reaction against chivalry. 

B. Lack of freedom of thought. 

C. Lack of high ideals in education. 

D. Ballad singing. 

III. Literature. 

A. Prose. 

1. Thomas Malory's Morte d' Arthur. 

2. William Tyndale's Translation of the Bible. 

a. Very similar to present version. 

b. Clearness of prose expression advanced. 

3. Robert Ascham's School-master. 

B. Poetry. 

1. Scottish ballads by William Dunbar. 

2. Review of old songs : Rohin Hood; Chevy Chase. 

3. Introduction of Italian sonnet form by Wyatt and Surrey. 



English as Written in the 15th Century. 

Sir Percival. 

But this knyght that foughte with Syre Percyval was a proved knyght and a wyse fyght- 
inge knyghte, and Syre Percyvale was yonge and stronge, not knowying in fyghtying as 
the other was. Thenne Syre Percyval spake fyrste and sayd syre knyght hold thy hand 
a whyle stille, for we have foughten for a symple mater and quarel over longe, and there- 
fore I requyre thee tell me thy name, for I was never or this tyme matched. Soo god me 
help, sayd that knyghte that wounded me soo sore as thow hast done, and yet have I 
foughten in many batails, and now shalt thow wete that I am a knyghte of the table 
round, and my name is Syre Ector de Marys broder unto the good knighte Syre Launce- 
lot du Lake. Alias said Syre Percyval and my name is Syre Percyval de Galys that hath 
made my quest to seke Syre Launcelot, and now I am seker that I shall never fynysshe 
my quest, for ye have slayne me with your handles. It is not soo said Syre Ector, for I 
am slayne by yoore handes, therefore I requyre you ryde ye here by to a pryory, and 
brynge me a preest that I may receyve my Saveour, for I may not lyve. Alas said Syre 
Percyval that never will be, for I am so faynte for bledyne that I maye unnethe stande, 
how shold I thenne take my hors. "^Thomas Malory. 

Test Questions. 

What makes this period one of importance to English literature in spite of 
the lack of productions? 

Can you see any reason why the use of gunpowder necessitated a change in 
the subject-matter of romance? 

What effect does a civil war have on the literary production of the country 
during the time it is in progress? Apply your answer to the case of England 
during the War of the Roses. 

The events enumerated in the historical background of the period are among 
the reasons why the Elizabethan period was one of such remarkable literary bril- 
liancy. Why did they not have the same effect on the period in which they 
occurred ? 

Of what value was the capture of Constantinople to literature? 

Read the ballads : A Lyteel Geste of Robyn Hood, Robyn Hood's Death 
and Burial, The Nut-Brown Maid. 

233 



Age of Elizabeth. 

(1558-1625). 
Climax of Greatness in English Literature. 

I. Historical Background. 

A. Exploration and settlement of the New World. 

B. Gradual development of Puritanism. 

C. Defeat of the Spanish Armada. 

D. Reign of Elizabeth. 

E. Reign of James I. (first of Stuart kings). 

II. Influences Giving Rise to Greatness of Literature. 

A. Liberal intelligence of Elizabeth. 

B. Combined effects of Renaissance and Reformation. 

C. Imagination aroused by stories of New World. 

D. Rise of middle class. 

E. Greater use of printing press. 

III. General Characteristics of Literature. 

A. Strong imagination. 

B. Youthful enthusiasm. 

C. Love of adventure. 

D. Love of nature. 

E. Variety of subject-matter. 

F. Dramatic expression. 

G. Extravagant decoration. 

IV. Production. 

A. Prose. 

1. Philip Sidney. 

2. Richard Hooker. ■ 

3. Francis Bacon. 

a. Life. 

b. Works. 

1. Essays on all subjects. 

2. Scientific and historical. 

c. Literary characteristics. 

1. Clear, concise sentences. 

2. Breadth of knowledge. 

3. Figures drawn from court life. 

4. Interest. 

B. Poetry. 

1. Nondramatic. 

a. Edmund Spenser. 

1. Life. 

2. Works. 

a. Minor poems. 

1. Shepherd' s Calendar. 

2. Epithalamium. 

b. Masterpiece. 

1. Faerie Queene. 

a. Place. 

b. Style. 

c. Rank. 



Thanks to the human heart by which we live, 
Thanks to its tenderness, its joys, and fears, 

To me the meanest flower that blows can give 
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears. 

— Wordsworth. 

234 






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BLACKBOARD LESSON. 
235 



c. Characteristics. 

1. Melody. 

2. High ideals. 

3. Absolute expression. 

4. Influence on other poets. 

5. Spenserian stanza. 

b. Large number of writers of lyrics used sonnets. 
Dramatic. 

a. Thomas Sackville. 

b. Christopher Marlowe. 

1. Life. 

2. Works. 

a. Example of greed for money. 

1. The Jew of Malta. 

b. Example of greed for knowledge. 

1. Dr. Faustus. 

c. Example of greed for conquest. 

1. Tamhurlaine the Great. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Extravagant imagination. 

b. Extreme types in character. 

c. Youthful enthusiasm. 

d. Highly decorated expression. 

4. Influence. 

a. Made blank verse variable and flexible, to suit subject- 

matter. 

b. Shakespeare adopted his new form. 

c. William Shakespeare. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Nondramatic. 

1. Venus and Adonis. 

2. Liicrece. 

3. 150 sonnets. 

b. Characteristics of nondramatic poems. 

1. Subject-matter — Love and nature. 

2. Exquisite expression in sonnet form. 

c. Rank of nondramatic work. 

1. Would have placed Shakespeare among the first 
poets of the world. 

d. Dramatic — According to periods of life. 

1. Youthful, hopeful period. 

a. Comedy of Errors. 

b. Midsummer Night's Dream. 

c. Romeo and Jidiet. 

d. Richard II. and ///. 

2. Deeper insight, deeper philosophy, better plot. 

a. As You Like It. 

b. Merchant of Venice. 

c. Henry IV. and Henry V. 

3. Disappointment, sorrow, weakened faith. 

a. Hamlet. 

b. Julius Caesar. 

c. Othello. 

d. Macbeth. 



236 



4. Closing years — Faith and strength. 

a. Cymbeline. 

b. The Tempest. 
e. Plot. 

1. Material. 

a. From old English chronicles. 

b. From Plutarch's Lives. 

c. Miscellaneous manuscript. 

2. Treatment in general. 

a. Act. I. 

1. Introduction of main character. 

2. Previous history. 

3. Purpose and plan of hero. 

4. Background. 

b. Act II. 

1. Development of hero's purpose. 

2. Introduction of opposition active. 

3. Introduction of minor lines of actions. 

c. Act III. 

1. Climax. 

d. Act IV. 

1. Decline of opposition. 

2. Progress of hero's plan. 

e. Act V. 

1. Conclusion. 

f. General characteristics. 

1. Sympathy with all classes. 

2. Love of nature. 

3. Humor. 

4. Mixture of comedy and tragedy. 

5. Command of vocabulary. 

6. Imagery. 

g. Rank. 

1. First of all times and nations. 

d. Ben Jonson. 

1. Life. 

2. Works. 

a. Prose. 

1. Critical essays. 

b. Poetry. 

1. Nondramatic. 
a. Lyrics. 
^ 2. Dramatic. 

a. The Silent Woman. 

b. Volpone. 

c. The Alchemist. 

d. Masques. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Display of technical knowledge. 

b. Lack of sympathy. 

c. Satire. 

d. Vigorous critical power. 

e. Exquisite lyrical expression. 

e. Beaumont and Fletcher. 

f. John Webster. 

Hope, for a season, bade the world farewell, 
And freedom shriek'd, as Kosciusko felL 

— Campbell. 
237 






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238 



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BLACKBOARD LESSON. 
16 239 



Questions and Suggestions for Elizabethan Age. 

Spenser is called a subjective poet. Explain. 

What is an allegory? Illustrate by Faerie Queene. 

Define the Spenserian stanza from the use in the Faerie Queene. See Byron's 
Childe Harold for more modern use of this verse form. 

What is a sonnet? Illustrate from Shakespeare. 

Define a lyric. Select examples from Ben Jonson's work and from those 
thrown into Shakespeare's plays. 

What contrast in the characters of Jonson and Shakespeare can be seen from 
the literary characteristics of the two? 

What is satire? Why is it detrimental to good literature? 

Did the change in the royal family ruling in England have anything to do 
with the decline of literature in the latter part of this period ? 

Shakespeare : Read a play from each of the periods of Shakespeare's life 
and trace the mfluence of events in each. Outline a play to illustrate the plot 
formation as shown under the head, "Treatment in General," in the outline. 
Make a list of references, as you read, to illustrate Shakespeare's characteristics. 

For what is Sidney famous in the history of prose development? Hooker? 



Puritan Age (1625-1660). 


I. Historical Background. 




A. Conflict between Cavaliers and Puritans. 


C. Commonwealth. 


B. Civil war. 




II. Effect of Struggle on Literature. 




A. Period of argumentation. 


C. Religious fervor. 


B. Prose, rather than poetical, development 


D. Lack of originali 


III. Literature. 




A. Prose. 




1. Jeremy Taylor. 


5. Sir Walter Raleigh 


3. Izaak Walton. 


6. Lord Clarendon. 


3. Thomas Hobbes. 


7. Thomas Fuller. 


4. John Milton. 




B. Poetry. 




1. Caroline or Cavalier School. 


I 


a. Writers. 




1. Abraham Cowley, 


3. Robert Herrick. 


b. Characteristics. 




1. Light subject-matter. 


3. Lyric. 


3. Extensive decoration. 




3. John Milton. 




a. Life. 


b. Poetry. 


1. Minor poems. 




a. L Allegro. 


d. Lycidas. 


b. // Penseroso. 


e. Sonnets. 


c. Camus. 




2. Later and more important 


poems. 



a. Samson Agonistes. 

b. Paradise Regained. 
Character of work. 

1. Melody. 
3. Majesty. 
3. Vivid imagination. 
Rank. 
1. Second to Shakespeare. 



c. Paradise Lost. 



4. Beauty. 

5. Polished verse form. 

6. Figurative. 



240 



Questions and Suggestions for Study. 

Why was the drama neglected in this period? 

Give the particular line of prose development for which each of the writers 
stand. 

Can you see why the Cavalier school would rebound from the general char- 
acteristics of the period ? 

Compare the practical business ability of Shakespeare, Milton, and Chaucer. 

What is a masque? Comus is claimed to be the greatest in the English lan- 
guage. Read it and make a list of points to prove the place it holds. 

Learn Milton's Ode to Blindness, and explain how it illustrates his character. 

What possibilities in Milton's life are indicated by L' Allegro and // Penseroso? 

Paradise Lost: Tell the story of the writing of the poem: the first six lines 
of Book I., give the subject-matter and tell the purpose; learn both. Why is this 
an epic poem ? Why did Milton write Paradise Regained? How does it compare 
with Paradise Lost? 

What influence has Milton had on theology ? 

Milton called his prose his left hand. Explain. 

Learn Milton's definition for education in his article on Education. 



Restorative Period (1660-1700). 

L Historical Background. 

A. Restoration of Stuarts to throne. 

B. Revolution of 1688. 

IL Characteristics of Literature. 

A. Low moral standard. 

B. Omission of nature reference and background. 

C. Increase of scientific knowledge. 

D. French influence. 

E. Attention to verse form rather than subject-matter. 
in. Writers. 

A. John Bunyan. 

1. Life. 

2. Works. 

a. Life and Death of Mr. Badman. 

b. Holy War. 

c. Pilgrim's Progress. 

3. Characteristic of style. 

a. Simple words. c. Dramatic action, 

b. Vivid imagination. d. Sincerity. 

B. John Dryden. 

1. Life. 

2. Works. 

a. Prose. 

1. Critical essays. 

b. Poetry. 

1. Plays. 

a. All for Love. 

2. Satirical poems. 

a. Absalom and Achitophel. c. Hind and Panther. 

b. Mac Flecknoe. 

3. Odes. 

a. Alexander's Feast. b. To Saint Cecilia's Day. 

4. Translations. 

a. Virgil. h. Chaucer. 

241 



Characteristics. 

1. Prose. 

a. Short, precise sentences. b. Keen critical power. 

2. Poetry. 

a. Lack of sympathy, 

b. Vigor. 

c. Didactic subject-matter. 

d. Polished verse form. 



Suggestions and Questions. 

Which of Shakespeare's plays has the same historical basis as All for Love? 
Comparino^ the characteristics of the two poets, what conclusion do you reach 
with regard to the merit of the plays ? 

Define didactic poetry. Is Dryden's didacticism the same as that of our 
American poets of the New England group? 

Why does John Bunyan seem out of place in his period? 

Pilgrim's Progress: Give form and subject-matter. What is the reason 
that this, next to the Bible, has been the most widely read book in the English 
language ? 



Classical Period (1700-1740). 

I. Historical Background. 

A. Reign of Queen Anne, George I., and George II. 

II. Characteristics of Period. 

A. Low moral standard. 

B. Lack of originality. 

C. Perfect yerse form. 

D. Satire. 

III. Writers. 
A. Prose. 

1. Daniel Defoe. 

2. Jonathan Swift. 

a. Life. 

b. Work. 

1. Tale of a Tub. 

2. Gulliver's Travels. 

c. Characteristics of work. 

1. Satirical humor. 

2. Lack of pathos. 

3. Simple, direct style. 

3. Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. 

a. Lives. 

b. Chief work : Sir Roger de C overly Popes. 

c. Characteristics of work. 

1. Addison. 

a. Kindly humor. 

b. Smooth, elegant sentences. 

2. Steele. 

a. Strength and pathos. 

b. Carelessness in sentence structure. 



242 



B. Poetry. 

1. Alexander Pope. 

a. Life. 

b. Work. 

1. Translation of Virgil and Homer. 

2. Essay on Man. 

3. Rape of the Lock. 

4. Essay on Criticism. 

5. The Dunciad. 

c. Characteristics of work. 

1. Lack of imagination and emotion. 

2. Subject-matter sacrificed to verse form. 

3. Rhyming couplet at its climax. 

4. Leader of satiric didactic poetry. 



Questions and Suggestions. 

What were the Tattler and Spectator f What in American literature com- 
pares with them? 

Contrast the humor of Addison and Swift. 

Why is this period sometimes called the Age of Pope? 

What is the classical couplet? Why is it sometimes called the rocking-horse 
couplet f 

Read enough of Pope's poems to be familiar with his verse form and to illus- 
trate his characteristics. 

Preparation for Romantic Period. 

(1740-1780). 

L Historical Background. 

A. American Revolution. 

B. Reforms in government and poHtical views. 
IL Characteristics. 

A. Return of religious enthusiasm. 

B. Revival of dramatic tastes. 

C. Indications of great freedom of thought. 

D. Rise of novel. 
IIL Literature. 

A. Foundation Work for Romantic Period. 

1. Thomas Gray. 

2. James Macpherson, 

3. Horace Walpole. 

4. Thomas Percy. 

5. Oliver Goldsmith. 

a. Life. 

b. Work. 

1. Prose. 

a. Vicar of Wake-field. 

2. Poetry. 

a. The Deserted Village. 

b. She Stoops to Conquer. 

c. Characteristics. 

1. Quaint, analytical prose style. 

2. Humor. 

3. Mixture of classical and romantic characteristics. 

4. Good plot and active in drama. 

B. First English novel writers. 

1. Samuel Richardson. 

a. Life. 243 



b. Work. 

1. Pamela. 

2. Clarissa Harloive. 

3. Sir Charles Grandison. 

c. Characteristics of work. 

1. Tediousness. 

2. Narrow views. 

3. Interest in characters. 

2. Henry Fielding. 

a. Life. 

b. Work. 

1. Joseph Andrews. 

2. Tom Jones. 

3. Amelia. 

c. Characteristics of work. 

1. Humor. 

2. Perfection of plot. 

3. Vigorous characterization. 

3. Tobias Smollett. 

4. Laurence Sterne. 

C. Miscellaneous prose writers. 

1. David Hume. 

2. Edward Gibbon. 

3. Edmund Burke. 

4. Samuel Johnson. 

a. Life. 

b. Work. 

1. Essays. 

2. Rasselas. 

3. Lives of Poets. 

c. Characteristics of writing. 

1. Elaborate manner of expression. 

2. Philosophical. 

3. No imaginative coloring. 

4. Strength. 

D. Dramatic writers. 

1. Richard Sheridan. 

2. Oliver Goldsmith. 



Questions and Suggestions. 

Where did Macpherson and Thomas Percy get material for their work? 

How does the Deserted Village show the mixed characteristics of the classical 
and romantic writers? 

Who is called the inventor of the English novel? 

Why is Henry Fielding considered the greatest novelist of the 18th century? 
What is his masterpiece? 

What friend of Johnson's became famous through writing his biography? 

What famous club was formed in London in 1764? Name the important 
members. 

On what quality does Johnson's fame rest? 

What is the difference between a romance and a novel? 

What is the meaning of the term "Picaresque" in connection with story- 
writing ? 

244 



Romantic Period. 



I. Historical Background. 

A. French Revolution. 

B. Effect of American Revolution. 

C. Time of peace in England. 

II. Characteristics of Romanticism. 

A. The opposite of matter-of-fact. 

B. Deep feeling. 

C. Love of nature, especially wild nature. 

D. Democracy. 

E. Use of supernatural in subject-matter. 

F. Love of adventure and mystery. 

G. Beauty of thought and expression. 

III. Writings. 

A. Prose writers. 

1. Charles Lamb. 

2. Thomas De Quincey. 

3. Walter Savage Landor. 

4. Jane Austen. 

B. Writers of both prose and poetry. 

1. Sir Walter Scott. 

a. Life. 

b. Works. 

1. Poetry. 

a. Minstrelsy of Scottish Border. 

b. Lay of the Last Minstrel. 

c. Marmion. 

d. Lady of the Lake. 

2. Prose. 

a. History. 

1. Life of Napoleon. 

2. Tales of a Grandfather. 

b. Fiction. 

1. Ivanhoe. 

2. Heart of Midlothian. 

3. Kenilworth. 

4. Bride of Lammermoor, etc. 

c. Characteristics. 

1. Mystery. 

2. Adventure. 

3. Energy. 

4. Love of wild nature. 

5. Love of supernatural. 

6. Return to past for subject-matter. 

2. Samuel Taylor Coleridge. 

a. Life. 

b. Works. 

1. Poetry. 

a. Christ ah el. 

b. Kubla Khan. 

c. The Ancient Mariner. 

2. Prose. 

a. Biography. 

b. Lectures and notes on Shakespeare. 

245 



c. 


Characteristics. 




1. Supernatural. 




2. Brilliant color. 




3, Beauty in ideals. 




4. Keenness of critical judgment. 


Poets. 




1. Robert Burns. 


a. 


Life. 


b. 


Works. 




1, Individual poems. 




a. Cotter's Saturday Night. 




b. Tarn O'Shanter. 




3. Songs and lyrics. 


c. 


Characteristics. 




1. Love of simple nature. 




2. Humor. 




3. Sympathy, 




4. Sincerity. 




5. Originality. 




6. Master of lyrical expression. 




7. Use of Scottish dialect. 


2. William Wordsworth. 


a. 


Life. 


b. 


Poetry. 




1. Long poems. 




a. The Prelude. 




b. Michael. 




c. Excursion. 




2. Other famous poems. 




a. Ode to Duty. 




b. Intimations of Immortality. 




c. Solitary Reaper. 




d. Daffodils. 




e. She Was a Phantom of Delight. 




f. Odes. 


c. 


Characteristics. 




1. Meditation. 




2. Sympathy with lowly life. 




3. Extreme love of quiet, simple nature. 




4. Strength. 




5. Simplicity. 


d. 


Rank. 




1. Third among English poets. 


3. Lord Byron. 


a. 


Life. 


b. 


Poems. 




1. Prisoner of Chillon. 4. Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. 




2. Manfred. 5. Vision of Judgment. 




3. Cain. 6. Don Juan. 


c. 


Characteristics. 




1. Rebellion against all law. 




2. Force. 




3. Emotion. 




4. Keen, cynical wit. 




5. Half pity. 




6. Lack of restraint in verse form. 



246 



Percy Bysshe Shelley. 

a. Life. 

b. Poems, 

1. Prometheus Unbound. 

2. The Cenci. 

3. Adonais. 

4. Songs and Odes. 

c. Characteristics. 

1. Pure love of freedom. 

2. Idealization of nature. 

3. Fragile beauty. 

4. Harmony. 

5. Lyrical power. 
John Keats. 

a. Life. 

b. Poems. 

1. Endymion. 

2. Lamia. 

3. Isabella. 

4. Eve of Saint Agnes. 

5. Hyperion. 

6. Shorter poems and odes. 

c. Characteristics. 

1. Mediaeval subject-matter. 

2. Appeal to senses. 

3. Youthful enthusiasm. 

4. Beauty. 

5. Musical verse. 



Questions and Suggestions. 

What is found in the characteristics of the different writers to show the 
influence of the French Revolution? How many of the writers contemplated 
active service in the Revolution? 

What writer of this period made the English Lake District famous? 

How did Burns establish a national spirit in Scottish poetry? Why did he 
accomplish more in that line than Scott? Read Burns' A Man's a Man for a' 
That and explain how it expresses the democratic feehng of the period. Read 
A Mountain's Daisy and show what characteristics it illustrates. Tam O' Shanter 
is considered Burns' best poem by many. Does it appeal to you so? 

How did Scott's life and ancestors furnish material for his work ? Illustrate 
Scott's characteristics by references to Ivanhoe and Lady of the Lake. Why did 
Scott give up writing poetry? 

Why is the Ancient Mariner illustrative of Coleridge's love of the super- 
natural? Of color? 

How does Wordsworth's Michael illustrate his love of lowly life? Read 
A Solitary Reaper for exquisite thought and musical expressions ; Daffodils for 
extreme love of nature. Why does Wordsworth rank third in English literature ? 

What points of similarity do you find in the lives of Byron, Shelley, and 
Keats? In their characteristics? Read To a Cherub, Eve of Saint Agnes, and 
Prisoner of Chilian. 

What American writers were living and writing at this period? 

247 



Victorian Period. 



I. Historical Background. 

A, Period of invention. 

B, Period of theological and scientific 

II. General Characteristics. 

A. Mixture of scientific and imagi- 

native subject-matter. 

B. Desire for truth. 

C. Analysis of motives. 

D. High ideals. 

E. Struggles in religious faith. 

F. Variety of production. 
in. Writers. 

A. Thomas Macaulay. 
1. Life. 

3. Work. 

a. Poetry. 

1. Lays of Ancient Rome. 

b. Prose. 

1. History of England. 

2. Essays. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Clearness. 

b. Energy. 

c. Brilliancy. 

d. Practical views. 

B. Thomas Carlyle. 

1. Life. 

2. V/ork. 

a. Translations. 
h. Life of Schiller. 

c. Life of Burns. 

d. Sartor Resartus. 

e. French Revolution. 

f. Oliver Cromivell. 

g. Frederick the Great. 

h. Heroes and Hero Worship. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Satire mixed with sympa- 

thetic interest. 

b. Philosophy. 

c. Sincerity. 

d. Force. 

e. Figurative expression. 

C. John Ruskin. 

1. Life. 

2. Works. 

a. Essays on Art. 

b. Essays on Morals. 

c. Essays on Social Reform. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Love of nature. 

b. Imagery. 

c. Musical sentences, 

d. Clearness. 

e. Sincere purpose. 

f. Breadth of knowledge. 

248 



investigation. 

D. Matthew Arnold. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Poetry. 

1. Sohrab and Rustum. 

2. Lyrics, elegies, sonnets. 

b. Prose. 

1. Literary criticisms. 

2. Theological discussions. 

3. Essays on social questions. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Poetry. 

1. Reflection. 

2. Lack of hope. 

3. Religious doubt. 

4. Love of sea. 

5. Irregularity of verse form. 

b. Prose. 

1. Easy, conversational style. 

2. Clearness. 

3. Unprejudiced criticisms. 

4. Plea for culture. 

E. George Eliot. 

a. Life. 

b. Work. 

1. Poetry. 

a. Spanish Gypsy. 
h. Shorter poems. ■ 

2. Novels. 

a. Based on early life and asso- 

ciations. 

1. Adam Bede. 

2. Silas Marner. 

3. Mill on the Floss. 

4. Scenes from Clerical Life. 

b. Foreign background. 
1. Romola. 

c. Marking decline in power. 

1. Middlemarch. 

2. Daniel Deronda. 

c. Characteristics. 

1. Analysis of character. 

2. Didactic purpose. 

3. Development of character with 

circumstances. 

4. Originality. 

5. Clearness and force. 

6. Humor. 

F. Charles Dickens. 
1. Life. 

. 2. Works. 

a. Pickwick Papers. 

b. Oliver Tzvist. 



c. Tale of Two Cities. 

d. David Copperiield. 
3. Characteristics. 

a. Vigorous, clear style. 

b. Sympathy with lower classes. 

c. Mixtures of humor and 

pathos. 

d. Vanity of character. 

e. Vivid imagination. 

G. William Makepeace Thackeray. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Essays. 

b. Novels. 

1. Vanity Fair. 

2. Henry Esmond. 

3. Newcomers. 

4. Pendennis. 

5. Virginians. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Satire mixed with tenderness. 

b. Realism. 

c. Portrayal of society life. 

d. Quaint, fresh style. 

H. Robert Browning. 

1. Life. 

2. Poetry. 

a. Monologues. 

1. My Lost Duchess. 

2. Andrea del Sarto. 

3. Abt Vogler. 
h. Dramas. 

1. Stafford. 

2. Blot on the Scutcheon. 

3. Pip pa Passes. 

c. Narrative -poems. 

1. Said. 

2. Ring and the Book. 

d. Short lyrics. 



3. Characteristics. 

a. Optimism. 

b. Originality. 

c. Force. 

d. Analysis of character. 

e. Power of rhythm and expres- 

sion. 

f. Obscure truths. 
Alfred Tennyson. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Minor poems. 

1. Palace of Art. 

2. Locksley Hall. 

3. Tivo Voices. 

4. Ulysses. 

5. Crossing of the Bar, etc. 

b. More important. 

1. The Princess. 

2. Maud. 

3. Enoch Arden. 

4. Idylls of the King. 

5. In Memoriam. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Keen observations of nature. 

b. Scientific knowledge in poetic 

form. 

c. Triumphs over religious 

doubt. 

d. Lyrical and narrative power. 

e. Perfect verse form. 
Other writers. 

1. Charles Reade. 

2. Charles Kingsley. 

3. Bulwer-Lytton. 

4. Charlotte Bronte. 

5. James Froude. 

6. Herbert Spencer. 

7. Thomas Huxley. 

8. Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 



Questions and Suggestions. 

Why does the historical background of this period make possible the variety 
of literature produced? 

Which writers suffered most from religious doubt in this period? Which 
one never regained his faith? 

Would Browning's naturally hopeful character be a reason for his escaping 
the period of doubt? 

ReaCi Pippa's song in Pippa Posses ior an expression of Browning's faith. 

Why are Carlyle and Browning considered spiritual tonics? 

What does Crossing the Bar tell us of Tennyson's faith? Read Idylls of the 
King and report on class of poems, allegorical significance, beauty of thought, and 
expression ? 

Lycidas, Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Adonais, and In Memoriam 
are the four greatest elegies in the English language ; give the author, occasion, 
plan, and rank of each poem, 

249 



Which one of Thackeray's novels is said to contain no hero? What one of 
Thackeray's characteristics does it contain? 

Which of Dickens's novels is said to be the story of his own life ? Illustrate 
Dickens's characteristics by this novel. Dickens's humor is often said to be 
grotesque; do you consider it so? Compare a character description in one of 
Dickens's novels with one in Thackeray's Vanity Fair. What is the difference? 

Which of George Eliot's characters is supposed to be herself? Which her 
father and brother? What fault creeps into her later novels and how can you 
account for it? Read Adam Bede and Mill on the Floss and report on charac- 
teristics found in each. 

Read Matthew Arnold's Dover Beach. What does the poem tell you of the 
writer's state of mind? 



American Literature. 

AMERICANISM, that sturdy pride in all that is worth while in self and 
country, early found expression in our literature. Even before the Revo- 
lution a certain force and fearlessness, totally unknown on English soil, 
began to be apparent in the literary expression of America. Within a half century 
after the adoption of the Constitution, the hills, valleys, and rivers of New York, 
the birds and flowers of the new land, the picturesque Indian, and even the early 
types of American men and women were familiar to the Old World through 
Irving and Cooper, American subject-matter, American spirited expression, 
American views on politics, religion, economics, and art have grown more and 
more steadily to make up the production of our writers and to give us a definite 
literature. When we consider that three centuries ago our land was a wilderness 
and that, together with all the work necessary to develop that wilderness into the 
present land of civilization, we have also created an individual literature we 
have just cause for pride in our nation. 

The swiftness of this achievement, and the nearness in time of the great 
body of literary production, make it difficult to divide American literary history 
into periods, characterized as those of English literature are. It is quite possible 
that as time gives the distance necessary to get the true proportion the relative 
greatness of the writers will be readjusted, and the whole body of literature 
will be redivided. For that reason only most evident lines of divisions have 
been opened in the following outline. For the same reason it has been impos- 
sible to estimate the importance of the very recent, or present-day, writers. The 
proportions of time given to them must depend upon the judgment of the 
teacher, until time, the most just critic of all, gives each his place. 

The pupil's initiative should be given full scope in the study of American 
literature. He should be made to feel a strong patriotic pride in the work, 
and that it is his place to prove the place of each writer to himself 
and to his classmates as a matter of individual interest. This can be done by 
the assignment of topics for reports to the class, by insisting on a wide reading 
of each writer's work, and by free discussion of the literary side of that work. 
The questions and suggestions for study are meant to bring out definitely cer- 
tain points along this line of discussion. The adverse criticism, almost con- 
tempt of our claim to an individual literature by the older nations, should put 
the pupils into a defensive attitude to prove the contrary, but this proof must 
be based on just criticism which comes from a thorough knowledge of the thing 
criticised. 

250 



Colonial Period (1607-1765). 

I. Characteristics. 

A. No American background. 

B. Subject-matter of adventure, history, and religion. 

C. Growth, in last years, of national fearlessness of expression. 

II. Writers. 

A. Captain John Smith. D. Jonathan Edwards. 

B. Increase and Cotton Mather. E. Anna Bradstreet. 

C. Roger Williams. F. Writer of Bay Psalm Book. 

III. Newspapers. 

A. Boston News Letters. 

B. Boston Gazette. 

C. New England Courant. 



Questions and Suggestions for Study. 

The general class of subject-matter and ability of each of these writers 
should be known, although some of them are not American in birth or work. 

An investigation of these early newspapers will prove of interest because of 
the men connected with them and the merit of the papers in themselves. 

How can you account for the seriousness of the writers of this time? 

What interest was developing in the latter part of the period that brought 
life into the later literature? 

Did any of the writers of this period attract attention in Europe? 

Contrast, briefly, the period of English literature, which covers the same 
time, with this early American period. 



Revolutionary and Constitutional 
Period (1765-1790). 



I. Characteristics. 




A. 


Politics. 


C, Controversy. 


B. 


Freedom. 


D. Shrewdness. 


II. Prose. 




A. 


Oratory and politics. 






1, Thomas Jefferson. 


4. John Jay. 




2. Alexander Hamilton. 


5. Thomas Paine. 




3. James Madison. 




B. 


Philosophy. 
1. Benjamin Franklin. 

a. Life. 

b. Work. 






1. Poor Richard's 


Almanac. 




2. Wise Speech a 


f Father Abraham. 




3. Autobiography. 






c. Characteristics. 






1. General truths. 






2. Practical wisdom. 




3. Clear, concise 


sentences. 




4. Humor. 






d. Place. 






1. Early type of Americanism in literature. 




2. First literature 


independent of passmg events, 



251 



Century of Creative Literature. 

(1790-1890). 



I. Early New York Group. 

A. Washington Irving. 

1. Life. 

2. Prose. 

a. Early. 

1. Knickerbocker History. 

2. Sketch Book. 

b. Results of foreign travel. 

1. Bracehridge Hall. 

2. Tales of a Traveler. 

3. Life and Voyages of Co- 

lumbus. 

4. Conquest of Granada. 

5. Alhambra. 

c. Results of American Travel. 

1. Tours on the Prairies. 

2. Astoria. 

d. Miscellaneous later work. 

1. Adventure of Captain Bon- 

neville. 

2. Life of Washington. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Spontaneity. 

b. Humor. 

c. Wholesome sentiment. 

d. American atmosphere. 

e. Simplicity of style. 

4. Place. 

a. Popular with all classes. 

b. Ranks with Addison and 

Steele. 

c. Inventor of American short 

story with local background. 

B. James Fenimore Cooper. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Novels. 

1. Leatherstocking Tales. 

2. Sea Tales. 

3. The Spy. 

b. History. 

1. History of United States 
Navy. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Out-of-door adventure. 

b. Idealization of characters. 

c. American background and 

character. 

d. Carelessness in style and sen- 

tence structure. 

4. Place. 

a. Founder of American ro- 

mance. 

b. Source of material for his- 

tory of pioneer life. 



C. William Cullen Bryant. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Poetry. 

1. Thanatopsis. 

2. Sella. 

3. Lyrics and short poems. 

4. Translations, 

b. Prose. 

1. Newspaper letters. 

2. Addresses. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Love of country. 

b. Love of nature. 

c. Stately, reserved verse form. 

d. Temperate criticism, 

4. Place. 

a. Leader of dignified cultured 

formalism. 

b. Pioneer poet of American 

nature. 

D. Fitz-Green Halleck and Rodman 

Drake. 

II. New England Group. 

A. Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Prose. 

1. Essays on morals, nature, 
and philosophy. 

b. Poetry. 

1. Threnody. 

2. Short poems. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Noble ideals. 

b. Short, clear, strong sen- 

tences. 

c. Epigrams. 

4. Place. 

a. Inspirer of youth. 

b. Calm, sane priest of faith. 

B. Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Stories and Legends. 

1. Tangleivood Tales. 

2. Mosses from an Old Manse. 

3. Great Stone Face. 

b. Novels. 

1. Blithedale Romance. 

2. Marble Faun. 

3. Dr. Grimshaw's Secret. 

4. The Scarlet Letter. 



252 



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BLACKBOARD I^ESSON. 
253 



3. Characteristics. 

a. Imaginative insight. 

b. Dramatic intensity. 

c. Romantic background. 

d. Moral problems. 

e. Brilliant, easy style. 

4. Place. 

a. Foremost writer of Amer- 
ican fiction. 

C. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Prose. 

1. Hyperion. 

2. Outre-Mer. 

3. Kavanaugh. 

b. Poetry. 

1. Narrative poems. 

a. Evangeline. 

b. Miles Standish. 

c. Himvatha. 

2. Dramatic poems. 

3. Ballads and lyrics. 

4. Translations. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Vigorous sympathy. 

b. Healthy mind. 

c. Faith in mankind. 

d. Simplicity and grace of 

style. 

4. Place. 

a. Most popular American poet. 

b. Children's poet. 

D. John Greenleaf Whittier. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Short poems. 

1. On slavery and religion. 

2. Legendary ballads. 

b. Long poems. 

1. Snow-Bound. 

2. Tent on the Beach. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Democracy. 

b. Genuine sincerity. 

c. Vigorous freedom. 

d. Poetic imagination. 

e. Poems of song. 

4. Poet of the people. 

E. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 
a. Prose. 

1. Essays. 

a. Breakfast Table Scenes. 

b. Over the Teacups. 

c. One Hundred Days in 
Europe. 



2. Novels. 

a. Elsie Venner. 

b. Guardian Angel. 

c. A Mortal Antipathy. 

3. Poetry. 

a. Chambered Nautilus. 

b. Dorothy Q. 

c. One Hoss Shay. 

d. Shorter poems. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Forcible intelligence. 

b. Wit and shrewdness. 

c. Charity. 

d. Easy, graceful prose. 

4. Place. 

a. A sage, humorous philoso- 
pher. 

F. Henry David Thoreau. 

1. Life. 

2. Prose. 

a. Essay on philosophy and 
nature. 

1. W aid en. 

2. Excursion. 

3. Spring, etc. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Philosophy of simple living. 

b. Humor. 

c. Cynicism. 

d. Direct, concise sentences, 

e. Poetic phrasing. 

4. Place. 

a. With Izaak Walton. 

G. James Russell Lowell. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. First period ; poetry. 

1. The Present Crisis. 

2. The Biglow Papers. 

3. Vision of Sir Launfal. 

4. Fable for Critics, 
h. Second period. 

1. Poetry. 

a. Biglow Papers (Second 
series). 

b. Commemoration Ode. 

2. Prose (Essays). 
a. Fireside Travels. 
h. Among My Books. 

c. My Study Windows. 
c. Third period. 

1. Poetry. 

a. Hearts-ease and Rue. 

2. Prose. 

a. Addresses and Essays. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Love of nature. 

b. Tenderness. ♦ 



254 



Characteristics. 

a. Outdoor adventure. 

b. Accuracy. 

c. Freshness and beauty of 
style. 

Place, 
a. Among foremost historians. 



c. Humor. 

d. Insight. 

e. Broad scholarship. 
4. Place. 

a. Best example of critic and 
poet combined. 
H. Francis Parkman 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Oregon Trail. 

b. France and England in 

America. ■ 

c. History of the Conspiracy of 

Pontiac. 
III. Southern Writers. 

A. Edgar Allan Poe. 

1. Life. 

2. Work. 

a. Prose. 

1. Detective stories. 

a. Murders of the Rue Morgue. 

b. The Purloined Letter. 

2. Analytical tales. 

a. Gold Bug. 

3. Moral allegory. 

a. The Black Cat. 

h. The T ell-Tale Heart. 

4. Supernatural stories. 

a. Fall of House of Usher. 

b. Poetry. 

1. The Raven. 3. Annabel Lee. 

2. The Bells. 4. Israfal, etc. 

3. Characteristics. 

a. Prose. 

1. Morbid imagination. 

2. Lack of characterization. 

3. Humor without pathos. 

4. No humor. 

5. Charm of swift, strong impression. 

b. Poetry. 

1. Artificial, 

2. Vague subject-matter. 

3. Imperishable beauty of verse form and expression. 

4. Place. 

a. Inventor of American detective stories. 

b. Master of beauty in verse. 

c. Similar position in poetic field to Coleridge. 

B. Sidney Lanier. 

1. Life. 
%. Works. 

a. Prose. 

1. Boys' stories. 

2. Lectures on prose and poetry. 

b. Poetry. 

1. Ballad of the Trees and the M ostein, 

2. Marshes of Glynn. 

3. Other narrative and lyric poems. 

255 . 



17 



B. 
C. 
D. 



2. 



3. Characteristics. 

1. Higii ideals. 

2. Refined, melodious verse. 

3. Beauty. 

4. Place. 

1. Preacher of art in life. 
IV. Other Writers. 

A. tiarriet Beecher Stowe. 
Daniel Webster. 
George Bancroft. 
William Prescott. 
E. Walt Whitman. 
1. Life. 
Works. 

a. Prose. 

1. Specimen Days. 

2. Democratic Vistas. 

3. Backward Glance O'er Travel'd Roads. 

b. Poetry. 
1. Leaves of Grass. 

Characteristics. 

a. Confusion of subject-matter. 

b. Frequent coarseness. 

c. Democracy. 

d. Out-of-door life and energy. 

e. Suggestiveness. 
4, Place. 

a. Poet, portraying the average man. 



3. 



Present-Day Period. 



I. Eastern Group. 

A. Thomas Bailey Aldrich. 

B. Emily Dickinson. 

C. E. C. Stedman. 

D. John Burroughs. 

E. Henry James. 

F. Mary Wilkins. 

G. Francis Richard Stockton. 
H. William D. Howells. 

II, Western Group. 

A. Joaquin Miller. 



III. 



B. James Whitcomb Riley. 

C. Helen Hunt Jackson. 

D. Bret Harte. 

E. Mark Twain. 

F. Eugene Field. 

G. William Jennings Bryan. 
H. Ella Wheeler Wilcox. 
Southern Group. 

A. F. Hopkinson Smith. 

B. George W. Cable. 

C. James Lane Allen. 

^ Revolutionary and Constitutional 
Period. 
Creative Period. 
V Present-Day Period. 

Reports giving the chief discussion to the speeches of the men under 
Oratory and Politics should be given to the class, with enough of the events of 
their Hves to review them for the pupils. The reports should bring out the 
characteristics of the period in their writings. 

The writing in America had been on the events of the day, until the time of 
Franklin. Explain how his was not and yet is considered one of the strongest 
influences in forming our nation. 

Select passages from the Knickerbocker History and the Sketch Book to 
illustrate Irving's characteristics. Compare Irving's and Addison's sketches on 
Westminster Abbey. 

256 



Questions and Suggestions on the 



What criticism is to be found against Cooper's Indians? Why are Cooper's 
writings romances rather than novels ? Read The Spy and Last of the Mohicans 
and select definite passages to illustrate Cooper's characteristics, and to prove 
his claims to being the founder of American romance. 

Why does Bryant's Yellow Violet mark the beginning of an epoch in Amer- 
ican literature? Select a short quotation in Sella which sums up the lesson 
taught. In comparing Bryant's earliest works with his last, what peculiar fact 
is evident? For what newspaper did Bryant write? 

What one poem makes the fame of Halleck and Drake? 
Compare Emerson and Franklin in their Americanism. Illustrate by reading 
passages from each. 

Prepare a report on the Brook Farm. 

What is Transcendentalism? Explain this term in connection with Emer- 
son and his friends. 

Contrast Carlyle and Emerson in life, character, and writing; compare and 
illustrate the last mentioned from the work of each. 

Bring epigrams from Emerson to the class that will illustrate his 
characteristics. 

What did Hawthorne do for New England which Irving had done for 
New York? Read Great Stone Face for an example of imaginative insight of 
Hawthorne. Read to the class chapters from Marble Faun illustrative of dra- 
matic intensity and of romantic background; have these passages reproduced 
by the pupils with the attempt on their part to retain the same characteristics. 
Trace by graphic the development of one of Hawthorne's characters. 

What poem brought Longfellow his first real recognition? Why are his 
three long narrative poems of importance in the history of American literature? 
Why is Longfellow called the Children's Poet? Illustrate his characteristics 
from Evangeline. Why does Hiawatha stand alone in its place in American 
literature ? 

Compare Whittier and Franklin. Read Whittier's poem Democracy and 
show how the principles advocated would make him take his stand against 
slavery. Why is Snow-Bound famous? 

Do the indications to-day show which field of Holmes's work will be most 
lasting? With whom could you compare him in English literature? Which 
group of his work most clearly shows his humor? His intelligence in scientific 
matters? His high ideals? 

Why is a complete understanding of Thoreau's character necessary to under- 
stand his place in literature? What would be the effect upon man in general 
if his philosophy of life was adopted? 

Read Walden and illustrate Thoreau's characteristics from several passages. 
Compare portions of it with Walton's The Complete Angler. 

What dififerent sides of Lowell's nature were illustrated by Biglow Papers 
and Vision of Sir Launfalf What two of his characteristics indicate his ability 
as a literary critic? 

Read one poem or story from each of Poe's fields of work and illustrate 
his characteristics by them. Is there any allegorical meaning to you in The 
Raven f Is Poe's fame increasing or decreasing? 

Why is Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin of sufficient importance 
to win her a place for all time? 

What one thing brought fame to Daniel Webster? 

Why is Walt Whitman's place in literature so unsettled? What qualities of 
his work could form a basis for his future fame ? What makes the foundation 
for the criticism against him? 

Why is it impossible to give a place to the writers of the Present-Day Period? 
Which ones seem to you most likely to hold a foremost place in the final adjust- 
ment and why? What group of writers shows most clearly the development 
of literature in the United States ? 

257 




Drawing 



Art is the child of Nature; yes, 
Her darling child, in whom we trace 
The features of the mother's face, 
Her aspect and her attitude. 

— Longfellow, 




THE object of drawing in schools is not to make artists, but to train the 
children to become art-loving. Through all of this work they should not 
only gain the power to create and appreciate the beautiful, but they should 
develop a greater power for enjoyment. Children have a clearer appreciation 
of the colorings in a picture after they have expressed their own ideas in regard 
to it. For this reason they should early learn that drawing is one form of self- 
expression. 

Oftentimes a thought can be expressed by means of a drawing, or painting, 
that cannot be made plain by means of a word picture. A little poem by Frederick 
O. Sylvester, called The Picture, admirably expresses this thought : 

"There's a pool in the ancient forest," 

The painter-poet said, 
"That is violet-blue and emerald 

From the face of the skj' overhead." 

So far in the ancient forest, 

To the heart of the wood went I, 
But found no pool of emerald. 

No violet-blue for sky. 

"There's a pool in the ancient forest," 

Said the painter-poet still, 
"That is violet-blue and emerald. 

Near the breast of a rose-green hill." 

And the heart of the ancient forest 

The painter-poet drew, 
And painted a pool of em.erald 

That thrilled me through and through. 

Then back to the ancient forest 

I went with a strange, wild thrill, 
And I found the pool of emerald 

Near the breast of the rose-green hill. 

The environments of the home and school are made better by a course in 
art study. In this way students become familiar with the harmony of color 
and design and early learn to apply it in decorative work. 

The student learns truth through the art of drawing. He should aim to 
express the truth as he sees it. He gains pcmver to draw only as he increases 
his power to see and to express correctly. 

258 



Suggestions, (a) Do not expect too much of little children. Lead them 
to express their own thoughts, not the teacher's thoughts, (b) Drawing should 
often be used in connection with the general work of the school, (c) As far as 
possible, the teacher should follow a definite outline on drawing, (d) The pencil 
should always be held at right angles to the line as it is drawn. 

The Plan, 
A general plan 
of eight years' 
work in draw- 
ing, with sug- 
g e s t i on s and 
sample lessons, 
is given in this 
article, showing 
plainly how the 
instructor may 
plan her own 
work, and make 
use of the out- 
lines as sfiven. 




This illustration is to sliow that the pencil should be at right angles to the line. 



Material. 

1. Manilla paper. 

2. Size— 6'' by 9" ; 9" by 13" ; and 12" by 18." 

3. Drawing and construction paper. 

4. Mounting paper. 

5. Gray and white drawing paper. 

6. One-fourth inch squared paper. 

7. Colored papers, crayons, and water colors (Three colors). 

8. No, 7 brush, water pan, drawing pencils, scissors, and print and black 
glazed paper for cutting. 

9. Engine colored papers, charcoal, and charcoal paper. 

Supplies. Supplies may be obtained from general school supply houses. 
It is well for the teacher to obtain catalogues and price lists from a number of 
houses. The names of several dealers are given below: 

Garden City Educational Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. 

Prang Educational Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. 

Atkinson, Mentzer & Groves, 223 Washington St., Chicago, 111. 

Scott, Foresman & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. 

D, C, Heath & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, HI. 

Milton Bradley & Co,, Boston, Mass. 

Devoe & Reynolds C^o., 176 Randolph St., Chicago, lU. 

Thomas Charles & Co., 80 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. 

Joseph Dixon Crucible Co., 98 Jackson Boulevard, Chica^, HI. 



m 



September Lessos. 



The wind comes up across the hill, the wind goes laughing by: 
The sweet September calls us before the flowers die. 
It's time to take your baskets up and follow on with me, 
Along the road and up the hill strange countries for to see. 

— Selected. 



Grade I. 

Give lessons on the use and care of 
the paint box. The box should be 
placed in the upper right-hand corner 
of the desk and the paint pan at the 
left of the box. Pans and brushes 
should be cleaned at the close of every 
recitation. Name the colors as they 
are found in the spectrum: yellow, 
green, blue, violet, red, and orange. 
Give lessons in mixing colors. Yel- 
low and blue make green ; blue and 
red make orange. Teach the poem: 

"Have you seen the sunshine fairies 
Peeping out at yoti? 
Red and orange, green and yellow, 
Violet and blue?" 
SEPTEMBER. 

Paint a landscape involving a blue sky and green grass, 
cuttings of September flowers. Paint flowers. 

Grade H. 




Teach free-hand 



Teach lessons on the care of paints (See. Grade I.). Review the mixing of 
colors. Take the children out of doors and teach the September poem. Paint 
a landscape involving blue sky, green grass, and distant trees. Repeat this part 
of the landscape work until the pupils can work quickly and well. Teach the 
names of trees and paint them. Teach the following poem: 

"Do you know the trees by name 

When you see them growing? 
In the field or in the woods, 

They are well worth knowing." 

Illustrate : 

"Who has seen the wind? 

Neither you nor I. 
But, when the trees hang fluttering. 
The wind is passing by." 

Teach free-hand cutting of September flowers. Illustrate the cuttings. 
Paint the flowers. 



Teach this poem : 

"We're three little colors, 

We come hand in hand ; 
The three little workers 

To brighten the land. 
We come in the Autumn 

To make the world fair, 



Grade UI. 



Just look all about you, 
W% shine everywhere. 
Three bright little sisters- 
Our names you can call- 
Red, Yellow, and Orange 
Are the colors of fall." 



260 




OUTLINE DRAWING. 
261 



Teach colors and their complements: Yellow is the complement of violet; 
riolct is the complement of yellow; blue is the complement of orange; orange 
is'the complement of blue; red is the complement of green; green is the comple- 
ment of red. Call attention to a September landscape, involving blue sky, green 
grass, distant trees, and trees in the foreground. Illustrate the following poem 
and use water colors as a medium : 

"Little seed babies 

In cribs of brown. 
We found in a lane 

Just outsida of towru" 

(Milkweed). 

Paint and cut September flowers. 

Grade IV. 

Paint a September landscape involving blue sky, grass, distant trees, trees 
in the foreground, and water reflecting the color of the sky. Illustrate : 

'"Neath a tall and spreading tree, Each one takes a dainty sup 

Birds and squirrels drink their tea ; From a tiny acorn cup." 

Paint flowers in silhouette and in color. 

Grade V. 

Study a September landscape. Paint grasses and fruits in neutral tint and 
color. Make finders (See page 264) and use them in finding a pleasing compo- 
sition. Learn the use of complementary colors. Apply in painting flowers and 
grasses the following: Gray-green with red, red with green, blue with orange, 
orange with blue, yellow with violet, and violet with yellow. Illustrate : 

"This road that goes right by our door 
Keeps on a hundred miles or more ; 
Sometimes it's just a country trail, 
And there's a squirrel on the rail." 

Grade VI. 

Paint flowers in color with pleasing background. Make neutral value scale, 
thus : Draw five oblongs. Leave the upper oblong white and paint the lower one 
black. Paint the middle one a gray half-way between white and black. Paint 
a value half-way between black and the central middle value and place above 
black. Paint a value half-way between white and the central middle value and 
place below white. Make color scales in the same way. Illustrate : 

"High up the old gray garden wall, 
The morning-glories climb ; 
To kiss the stately hollyhocks, 
All in the summer time." 

Grade VII. 

Teach pencil drawings of flowers, plants, grasses, and sedges. Emphasize 
the drawing in this work. Study the structure of plant and the direction of 
lines. Carefully render the specimens in proper tones. Paint a September 
landscape. 

Illustrate : 

"The goldenrod is yellow. 

The corn is turning brown. 
The trees in apple orchards 

With fruit are bending down." 

Grade VIII. 

Make pencil drawings of plants, grasses, sedges, flowers, and fruits (Read 
notes on pencil rendering). Sketch September landscapes in pencil and in color. 

Illustrate : 

"Now fades the glimmering landscape on thft 

sight. 
And all the air a solemn stillness holds." 

262 



Grade I. 

Paint from large showy flowers. Use paper 9'^xl2.'"' Paint and cut seed 
pods and grasses in silhouette. Paint and cut bright leaves and berries. Paint 
an October landscape. Paint all leaves, flowers, grasses, etc., direct from speci- 
men. Make a leaf booklet. 
Illustrate : 

"Come little leaves," said the wind one day, 
"Come o'er the meadow with me and play; 
Put on your dresses of red and gold, 
For simimer has gone and the days are cold." 

Grade II. 

Let the children revel in color during the month of October. Paint leaves, 
flowers, grasses, and trees in color and in neutral tints. Study trees. Paint in 
color and make a tree booklet. Cut trees. 
Illustrate : 

"The pine tree stood in the wood, 

Tapering straight and high, 
Stately and high it stood 

Black green against the sky, 
Crowded so close it sought the blue, 
And ever upward it reached and grew." 

Grade III. 

Paint trees, leaves, berries, and flowers 
in color. Make a booklet of color notes from 
the above. Cut oblongs of drawing paper 

l''x3'' and paint splashes of color from speci- 
mens. Mount these neatly and bind into a 
booklet. 

Illustrate : 

"Oh ! sun and skies and clouds of June 

And flowers of June together, 
Ye cannot rival for one hour 
October's bright blue weather." 

Grade IV. 

Make finders. Use finders in landscape work. Paint an October landscape. 
Paint on 9''''xl2'"' paper and use finders to help select a good composition. Paint 
trees in color and place in landscape. Paint a flower booklet. 
Illustrate : 

"It was late in mild October, and the long autumnal rain 
Had left the summer harvest field all green with grass again; 
The first sharp frosts had fallen, leaving all the woodlands gay 
With the hues of summer's rainbow, or the meadow-flowers of May." 

Grade V. 
Make finders. Paint October landscape and use finders. Paint leaves, 
flowers, berries, and trees in color. Conduct brush studies from grasses, sedges, 
and flowers in silhouette or in neutral values. Mount these studies and bind 

them into a booklet. Make pencil 
sketches of trees. 

Illustrate : 

How soft and still the autumn landscape lies. 
Calmly outspread beneath the smiling skies; 
As if the earth in prodigal array 
Of gems and broidered robes kept holiday; 
Her harvest yielded and her work all done, 
Basking in beauty 'neath the autumn sun ! 
— Sarah Helen Whitman. 





FINDER. 



use; of thf finder. 



263 




BRUSH DRAWING. 
264 



Grade VII. 

, Prepare a decorative composition from autumn leaves, fruits, berries, and 
flowers. Design a book cover. 

Make a booklet containing designs obtained from flowers, leaves, berries, 
weeds, and seed pods. 

Illustrate in water colors : 

Then followed the beautiful season, 

Called by the pious Acadian peasants the Summer of All Saints, 
Filled was the air with a dreamy and magical light ; and the landscape 
Lay as if new-created in all the freshness of childhood. 

— Longfellow. 

Grade Vffl. 

Make decorative landscapes from good copies. Prepare a booklet of deco- 
rative landscapes. Design a book cover (Use a decorative design). 

Illustrate in water colors : "The world puts on its robes of glory now, 

The very flowers are tinged with deeper dyes, 
The waves are bluer, and the angels pitch 
Their shining tents along the sunset skies." 



November Lessons. 

"The earth has donned a robe of sober brown, 

A restful shadow hangs o'er plain and wood ; 
The leaves, in faded heaps, have nestled down 

As if to rest from frolicking were good." 

Grade I. 

Have the pupils make large paper cuttings of fruit. Paint fruit in color 
and in silhouette. Paint bare trees in neutral tints and a November landscape 
in color. Bind the paint- 
ings of fruit into a book- 
let. Illustrate : 
"The jolly Jack-o'-lantern 

man, 
I'm going to make him, 
if I can." 

Grade H. 

. Conduct work in large 
paper cuttings of pump- 
kins, squashes, turnips, 
ears of corn, etc. Paint 
the Mayflower and place 
it in a scene. Paint the 

Mai'/?ow^r in silhouette. 

Paint vegetables. Illustrate : November. 

"Here are apples, ripe and red, 
Picked from orchard boughs o'erhead." 

Grade HI. 

Paint fruits in silhouette and in color. Make a fruit booklet. Paint a sunset, 
showing color reflected in water. Learn parts of the poem Hiawatha. 

illustrate . "Saw the moon rise from the water, 

Rippling, rounding from the water." 

Grade IV. 

Begin studying still life. Paint fruits and vegetables combined with some 
manufactured article. Make a Thanksgiving booklet. Paint a November land- 
scape. Illustrate : 

"When the blossoms go to sleep. 
Autumn skies are cold and gray, 
Empty nests hang on each spray. 
Little birds have flown away." 
265 




Grade V. 

Begin to study still life. Paint a November landscape. Illustrate a Thanks- 
giving poem and bind it into a booklet. Decorate the cover with some simple 
Thanksgiving design. Illustrate: 

When the blossoms go to sleep, When the blossoms go to sleep 

Woods are bare and brown and still, Busy squirrels homeward hie, 

Hushed each little laughing rill. Droops each drowsy butterfly. 

Faded leaves the hollow fill. Low winds sing their lullaby. 

When the blossoms go to sleep, 
Snowflakes lightly bring and fling 
O'er their beds soft covering, 
Safe and warm they'll dream till spring- 
Grade VI. 
Paint a November landscape, involving sunset effects. Begin the study of 
still life. Use finder and work for good composition. Bind the still life paintings 
into a booklet and decorate the cover. Illustrate : 

"The brown birds are flying 

Like leaves through the sky, 
The flow'rets are calling, 

'Dear birdlings, good-bye.' " 



Grades VII and VIII. 

Paint a November landscape involving sunset effects. 



Paint still life studies. 



December Lessons, 



"While stars of Christmas shine. 

Lighting the skies, 
Let only loving looks 

Beam from your eyes. 
While bells of Chrisfmas ring, 

Joj'ous and clear, 



Speak only loving words. 
All mirth and cheer. 

Give only loving gifts, 
And in love take, 

Gladden the poor and sad, 
For love's dear sake." 




DECEMBER. 

Grades I, II and III. 

Continue the landscape work. Illustrate Christmas poems and thoughts by 
drawings, paintings, and cuttings. Insist on large free work. Make Christmas 
gifts. Emphasize the thought of giving. Paint pine trees and then place them 
in a landscape. Study several Madonnas. 

Grade IV. 

Paint a December landscape in water colors. Illustrate a Christmas poem 
and bind it into a booklet. Design a cover for a booklet. Design other book 
covers. Make Christmas gifts. 

Grades V, VI, VII and Vffl. 

Paint a December landscape. Make stencil designs from a seed or flower 
motif and apply them in making Christmas articles, fancy bags, book-bags, table 
covers, runners, sofa pillows, curtains, etc. 

266 



January Lessons. 




JANUARY. 

"Wintry winds are blowing, 

Trees are bare, 'tis snowing; 
Beneath the drifts the flowers are buried deep, 

But in their icy dwelling 

Little brooks are telling 
That winter is but springtime fast asleep." 

Grades I, II and HI. 

Paint Januar}' landscapes. Use cutting-s of snowflakes in designs. Place 
some design on a box cover or some other articles to be decorated. Draw around 
the design and color in some harmonious combination. Draw, cut, and paint 
objects received by the children as Christmas gifts. Conduct a line of action 
drawings. 

Grade IV. 

Continue still life study. Draw a January landscape in color. Illustrate a 

January poem and make a booklet. Make an original design for a book-bag. 

^lake a book-bag 10 by 12 inches from burlap. Color the design with water- 
colors and use a buttonhole or outline stitch to outline the design. 

Grade V. 

Continue still life study. Paint a snow scene. Make an original border 
design from a flower or a seed pod motif. Use paper 12 by 4 inches. Illustrate 
a January poem. 

Grade VI. 

Continue still life drawing. Paint a January landscape. Make an original 
wall paper design from a flower or a seed pod. Use paper 8 by 8 inches. Paint 
a design in analogous colors. Illustrate the January poem. 



Grades Vn and VIII. 

Continue drawing still life in colors. Paint a January landscape, 
and paint a poster announcing a school entertainment. 

267 



Design 



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DESIGNS AND MODEI^S FOR DRAWING, ETC 
268 



February Lessons. 



"When shines the February sun, 
When melting snows begin to run, 
When baby brooks, though sound asleep, 
Must from their winter cradle peep." 

Grades I, II and m. 

Make large paper cuttings to il- 
lustrate incidents in the lives of 
Washington, Longfellow and 
Lincoln. Make a booklet of cut- 
tings. Give plenty of action draw- 
ings and blackboard work during 
the month. Illustrate poems. Much 
of the work in February should be 
done in silhouette. 

Grade IV. 

Begin action work and pose drawing. Give a great deal of silhouette work. 
Make a booklet of silhouettes taken from the lives of Washington or Lincoln. 
Design a book cover. 

Grades V, VI, VH and VHI. 

■ Begin pose drawings. Study for leading lines in the pose and work for accu- 
rate drawings. Study the lives of Washington, Lincoln, and Longfellow, and 
illustrate incidents in the lives of these men. Make a booklet of illustrations from 
the life of any one of them. Design an appropriate cover page. Paint stained 
glass windows. 




fe;bruary. 



March Lessons. 



"When the March winds whistle shrill, 
And go tearing down the hill, 
And the melting snows run free, 
Then it's clear to you and me 
Spring will come as it did last year, 
Spring is coming, never fear." 

Grades I, II and HI. 

Silhouette drawings of animals. 
Make large cuttings of animals. Make 
paintings of animals in color. If possi- 
ble bring animals into the schoolroom 
(a dog, cat, hen, rooster, rabbit, squir- 
rel, etc.). Illustrate wind poems and 
stories. 




MARCH. 



Grade IV. 

Study the work of the wind. Paint a windmill and place it in a landscape. 
Make a booklet illustrating the work of the wind. Design a cover page. Paint 
birds in colors. 

Grades V and VI. 

Paint birds and mount them with appropriate poems. Make a booklet of 
birds and design the cover page. Draw a perspective as related to rectangular 
objects and landscapes. Paint a marine scene. 

Grades VH and VIII. 

Study perspective as related to rectangular objects. Draw boxes, books, 
chairs, tables, etc. Paint a marine scene, illustrating some poem. 

269 




My heart leaps up; 

I behold a rainbow — 

So was it when I was a child; 

So is it now I am a man; 

So shall it be when I grow old, 

Or let me die. 

— Wordsworth 



APRII,. 

Grades I, II and III. 

Paint spring landscapes. Paint trees and place them in a landscape. Paint 
spring flowers. Illustrate spring poems. Make large cuttings to illustrate the 
month of April. Make a booklet of painted flowers. 

Grade IV. 
Paint spring landscapes. Make a landscape booklet. Study and paint trees. 
Paint spring flowers. Illustrate spring poems. 

Grades V and VI. 

Paint trees. Make a tree booklet, combining painted trees and appropriate 
poems. Paint spring landscapes. Continue the study of perspective as related to 
landscapes. Illustrate the April poem. 

Grade VII. 
Continue the study of perspective as related to rectangular objects and land- 
scapes. Paint spring landscapes. Illustrate the April poem and bind it into the 
booklet. Paint a spring poem in neutral values and in colors. 

Grade VIII. 

Draw a house in perspective. Draw a house in free-hand perspective and 
place it in a landscape with proper environments. Draw the interior of a room 
and decorate it in harmonious colorings. 

May Lessons, 

"All the birds and bees are singing, 
All the lily bells are ringing, 
All the brooks run full of laughter, 
And the wind comes whispering after. 
'What is this?' they sing and say. 
'It is May !' " 




MAY. 



Grades I, H, III, IV, V, VI, VII and Vffl. 

Review any part of the year's work. Illustrate the May poem, 
scapes, birds, and flowers. 



Paint land- 



Water Colors. 



(a) Children must have plenty of exercise in handling water colors, (b) 
Teach the child from the beginning to mix colors in his brush and lift all colors 
directly from the cake, (c) Do not let him "work over" his colors, (d) In paint- 
ing flowers, he should lift the fresh colors from the cakes and place them on paper 
at once. For instance : If he wishes to paint the sunflower in color, he should 
dampen his brush, fill it with yellow and a touch of red, and apply immediately 
to the paper. The brown should be mixed in his brush and applied to the center 
of the flower. If the leaves are painted in the same manner, fresh, pleasing 
colors will be obtained. Paint directly from the flower. Do not draw and then 
paint. In pamtmg landscapes, work for effect and not detail. All paper should 
be dampened. Avoid hard lines, (e) The mixing of color for the design should 
be done in the paint pans. 

270 



Perspective. 



The Horison is the apparent junction of the earth and sky. The Line of 
the Horizon is the apparent line where the earth and sky seem to meet. 

LINE. OF THE HORIZON 




FIG I 



All receding parallel lines meet at the same point, if they are sufficiently 
extended. If the drawing is correct, this point is on the horizon line and is called 
the vanishing point (See Fig. I). 



LINE OF THE HORIZON 




FIG.H 



When the faces of rectangular objects are viewed obliquely, they appear fore- 
shortened (See Fig. II). 



LINE OF THE HORIZON 




When the edges of parallel horizontal lines recede to the left of an object, 
they appear to converge to- a vanishing point at the left of the object. When 
they recede to the right of the object, they appear to converge to a vanishing point 
at the right of the object (See Fig. III). 



LINE or THE HORiZON 




FIG. EZ 

When the rectangular faces of an object are turned away unequally, the 
vanishing points are unequally distant from the nearest point of observation. 
The greater the angle, the nearer will be the vanishing point (See Fig. IV). 

The appearance of a face view of a circle is always a circle (See Fig. V). 




When a circle is seen obliquely, it always appears like an ellipse (See Fig, V). 

271 



18 



Pencil Drawing. 



Use a soft pencil. The M. S. (medium soft) is very good for ordinary work, 
but the pencil intended for drawing should not be used for writing exercises. 
While it is not wise to give too many directions in pencil rendering, it is a good 
plan to insist upon the pupils working directly and freely. They should never 
be allowed to work over and over the paper, for by so doing a shiny effect is pro- 
duced. When a dark tone is desired, the child should immediately produce that 
tone by a strong pressure of the pencil. Show the students specimens of good 
work and let them copy. Lead them to do original drawings. 

Poems for Illustrations. 

"The Owl and the Pussy Cat went to sea 

In a beautiful pea green boat. 

'Have you seen the sunshine fairies 

Peeping out at you — 

Red and orange, green and yellow, 

Violet and blue?' " 

"Over in the meadow, 
In the sand, in the sun, 
Lived an old mother-toad 
And her little toadie one." 
(See Fig. I.) 




FIG. I. 




FIG. III. 



Wynken, Blynken, and Nod one night 
Sailed off in a wooden shoe. 

— Eugene Field 
"I know a house so fair and fine, 

No flaw in it can you detect ; 

A silver beauty smooths each line. 

Drawn by its patient architect." 

(Spider Web) 
'Clouds of gray are in the sky. 
Flocks of birds are passing by." 

"By the shining big sea water, 
Stood the wigwam of Nokomis." 

"High on the branch of a walnut tree. 

A bright eyed squirrel sat ; 
What was he thinking so earnestly 

And what was he looking at?" 

"Apple blossoms budding, blowing 

In the soft May air ; 
Cups with sunshine overflowing, 
Flakes of_ fragrance drifting, snowing. 

Showering everywhere." 

tiring the comb and play upon it ! 

Marching here we come ; 
Willie cocks his highland bonnet, 

Jennie beats the drum, 
Mary Jane commands the party, 



Over in the meadow. 

Where the streams run blue, 
Lived an old mother-fish 

And her little fishes two." 
(See Fig. II.) 

"Over in the meadow. 

In a hole in a tree. 
Lived a mother-bluebird 

And her little birdies three.' 
(See Fig. in.) 

"Over in the meadow, 

In a snug bee-hive, 
Lived a mother-honeybee 
And her little honeys five." 

(See Fig. IV.) yiQ. I v. 

Peter leads the rear : 
Feet in time, alert and hearty. 
Each a grenadier. 




— Robert Louis Stevenson. 
(See Fig. V.) 




FIG. V. 
How do you like to go up in a swing. 

Up in the air so blue? 
Oh, I do think it the pleasantest thing 
Ever a child can do. 
272 — Robert Louis Stevenson. 




pe;ncil drawing. 
273 



"Once there was a little birdie, 

Sitting in a shady tree, 
And this song sang little birdie, 

'God is good — He cares for me.' " 

"Three little bunnies 

Out for a run 
In the bright moonlight, 

O ! what fun." 

"The bluebird chants, from the elm's long 

branches, 
A hymn to welcome the budding year." 

"A rainbow in the morning 

Is the sailor's warning." 
"A fair little girl sat under a tree, 
Sewing as long as her eyes could see." 

"Long may it wave 
O'er the land of the free 
And the home of the brave." 

A little black cricket 

Lives down in a thicket, 

O, a jolly young cricket so gay !_ 

— Selected. 

The moon has a face like the clock in the 

hall; 
She shines on thieves on the garden wall. 
On streets and fields and the harbor quays. 
And birdies asleep in the forks of the trees. 
— Robert Louis Stevenson. 



The friendly cow, all red and white, 

I love with all my heart; 
She gives me cream with all her might 

To eat with apple tart 

— Robert Louis Stevenson, 

"On goes the river 
And out past the mill. 

Away down the valley. 
Away down the hill." 

"What do you think I saw 

All bundled up in fur, 

Swinging at ease on a willow spray? 

Nine little pussies, plump and gray; 

But I could not find a sign of a claw 

Nor even the tip of a velvet paw ; 

What do you think they were?" 

(Pussy Willows). 

"High up the old gray garden wall 
The morning-glories climb. 

To kiss the stately hollyhocks. 
All in the summer time." 

"Hang a lantern aloft in the belfry tower 
Of the old North Church as a signal light.' 

Robins in the tree top, 

Blossoms in the grass. 
Green things a-growing 

Evervwhere we pass. 

-T. B. Aldrich. 




THE HARE AND THE TORTOISE. 

Stories for Illustratioii. 



The Sheep and Pig that Set Up House. 

The Lion and the Mouse. 

The Foxes and Ducks. 

The Little Red Hen. 

The Old Woman and Her Pig. 

Cinderella. 

The Three Pigs. 



The Three Bears. 

The Hare and the Tortoise. 

The Story of Chicken Little. 

The Donkey and the Salt. 

Clytie. 

TIte Poplar Tree. 

Jack and the Bean Stalk. 



Many stories used in connection with reading, literature, language, and his- 
tory should be used for iUustrations. 

274 



Paper Cutting. 



In drawing, the little child seems to naturally express the details and to lose 
sight of the large, important facts. He does not see any relation of these details 
to the whole. Free-hand cutting will do much to overcome this tendency. There 
is magic in a pair of scissors and a piece of paper. 

"Some speak with brush and palette, 

And some with pen and ink, 
But to speak with a pair of scissors 

Is the nicest way, we think." 

Insist on large free-hand cuttings. Never let the student draw and then cut. 
He should early learn to give his own free self-expression and idea of a story or 
object through this medium. The teacher herself should learn to cut quickly 
and well. 

Large cuttings from black paper should be pasted on large cards to be used 
as models. Oftentimes the cutting should be direct from the object. The teacher 
can prepare cards to meet the needs of the day. The following cuttings to be 
prepared by the teacher will be found very helpful : 

Cuttings of tame aniinals. 
Cuttings of wild animals. 
Cuttings from nature. 
Mother Goose poems illustrated. 
Other poems illustrated. 



Planting a Tree. 

(Commit to memory). 

What does he plant who plants a tree? 

He plants the friend of earth and sky; 
He plants the flag of breezes free; 

The shaft of beauty hovering high ; 

He plants a home to heaven a-nigh, 
For song and mother — croon of bird 
In hushed and happy twilight heard, — 
The treble of heaven's harmony, — 
These things he plants who plants a tree. 

What does he plant who plants a tree? 

He plants cool shade and tender rain, 
And seed and bud of days to be, 

And years that fade and flush again ; 

He plants the glory of the plain; 
He plants the forest heritage; 
The harvest of a coming age ; 
The joys that unborn eyes shall see, — 
These things he plants who plants a tree. 

What does he plant who plants a tree? 
He plants in sap and leaf and wood, 
In love of home and loyalty, 

And forecast thought of civic good, — 
His blessings on the neighborhood 
Who, in the hollow of His hand, 
Holds all the growth of all the land, 
A nation's growth from sea to sea 
Stirs in his heart who plants a tree. 

— Cooley. 

275 




fre;e;.hand paper cutting. 
276 




POSE CUTTING AND DRAWING 



Pose Gutting and Stories Illustrated. 

After the children have gained some skill in cutting from models, read a 
story or poem and let them illustrate with scissors. For instance: We wish the 
children to tell the story (with scissors and paper) of the three bears. Before 
giving the story, have large cuttings of a bear, house, table, little girl, chair, 
bed, bowl, spoon, tree, etc., in plain view. Tell the story. Retell the story with 
help of the children, thus : Once there was a little girl named Goldenhair. Do 
you see anything that will help you in cutting the little girl's picture? The chil- 
dren will tell that they see a picture of a little girl. Ask them if they will tell 
you where the little girl was going and if 
they see anything that will help them in their 

cutting of a little girl lifting the latch of the '^^^^m^hl f/ . 

door. Ask them to tell this much of the story fli^^^^^R •^^. 2., 

with their scissors (Fig. I.). When the little 
girl lifted the latch of the bears' house and 
entered, what did she see on the table? They 
will tell you that she saw three bowls. Ques- 
tion them in regard to the relative size of the 
bowls, and ask them what they see that will 
help them to tell that part of the story. They 
will say that they see a picture of a table, a 
bowl, and a spoon. Tell them to cut the table 
and place the bowls containing the spoons upon the table, being very careful not 

277 






jU:^.1Z. 



enhair asleep in the little bear's bed (See Fig 

When Goldenhair was asleep, 
who came home, and what did they 
find ? W e r e the bears all the same 
size ? Cut the three bears (See Fig. V. ) 

When Golden- 
h a i r awoke and 
saw the three bears, 
what did she do? 
Did the bears run 
after Goldenhair? 
No ; they were 
kind bears, and 
stood and looked 
at her as she ran 
through the woods. 
Cut the three bears 
looking at Golden- 
hair running 
through the woods 
(Fig. VI.). 

After a lesson 
has been given in 
this way, it will 
furnish a founda- 
tion for a great 
deal of undirected 
seat work. Many 
of the brush stud- 
ies given may be 
used for paper cut- 
ting. 

All figures 
should be learned 
so well that they 
can be drawn eas- 
ily and with a fair 
degree of accuracy. 

278 



to have the bowls the same 
size (Fig. II.). 

How many chairs did 
Goldenhair find, and were 
" they all the same size? Cut 
the three chairs, remember- 
ing that they were not the 
same size (See Fig. III.). 

How many beds did 
Goldenhair find? Cut the 
three beds and show Gold- 




J^^IZC 




BLACKBOARD- LESSON. 
•279 



Picture Study. 

Grade I. 

Madonna of the Chair Raphael 

The Christ Child Murillo 

Feeding Her Birds Millet 

Can't You Talk ? Holmes 

Grade 11. 

Brittany Sheep Bonheur 

Sistine Madonna Raphael 

Hiawatha Taylor 

Two Families Walter 

Grade HI. 

The Gleaners Millet 

The Horse Fair Bonheur 

Saint Anthony and the Christ Child Murillo 

Grade IV. 

The Helping Hand Renouef 

The Angelus Millet 

In the Country LeRolle 

Two Families Walter 

Grade V. 

Ploughing Bonheur 

The Horseshoer Landseer 

^orning '.*.'.'.".'.'.'.'. . . Corot 

Lincoln Saint Gaudens 

Grades VI, VII and VIH. 

There are twelve pictures quite generally accepted as masterpieces. These 
can be obtamed m the Perry Pictures and should be placed on exhibition in every 
room above the 5th grade. Many should be studied. They are as follows-: 

Transfiguration, Raphael, Vatican, Rome. 

Sistine Madonna, Raphael, Dresden Gallery. 

Aurora, Guido, Pallazzo Rospigliosi, Rome. " 

Last Supper, Leonardo Vinci, Milan. 

Last Judgment, Michael Angelo, Sistine Chapel, Rome 

Assumption, Titian, Academy Cathedral. 

Night Watch, Rembrandt, Amsterdam Gallery. 

Coronation of the Virgin, Fra Angelico, Louvre Paris 

Adoration of the Lamb, Van Eyck, Church of Saint Bavon Ghent 

Immaculate Conception, Murillo, Louvre, Paris 

Madonna, Holbein, Dresden Gallery. 

edge'offhe tlbwingf' '"'^"^ ^"^^ P"^""^' *'^ P"P^'^ ^^^"^^ ^-^ ^ ^--^■ 

Moses . ........"... Michael Angelo 0:,en Ploughing Bonheur 

Jesus m he Temple Hoffman Hope ...... f . Burne Tones 

Sr. 5^^«^^ ,V W^«^ ^-'^^ 'f ^^- P^opheis:::. Sargen 

^^^dmill Van Ruysdael Adam and Eve . . . .oSer 

Exhibition of Specimens. 

rr^cJ^T. T ^^"^/Pecimens from each drawing lesson should be carefully 
mounted and placed on exhibition in the room. The colored papers called 

mounfs Sfim'efit -r^'^f'^i '''^'''' "^^^^ ^'^ ^-^ -^ inexpensive 
mounts. Uftent mes It is wise to place an entire lesson on exhibition. 

Do not scatter the display work. One place in the room should be reserved 

n7. InTT- T^i^Tk ^'°/" ^" """^'^ blackboard over a radiator or the lop 
of a long, high blackboard can be used for this purpose. A large screen covered 
with harmonious colors is very convenient. coverea 

280 




= — ^^^' 




Physics 



Blessings on Science! When the earth seemed old, 
When Faith grew doting, and the Reason cold, 
'Twas she discovered that the world was young, 
And taught a language to its lisping tongue : 
'Twas she disclosed a future to its view, 
And made old knowledge pale before the new. 

— Charles Mackey. 

Physics is the branch of science which treats of the laws and properties of 
matter. It relates in particular to the general properties of bodies and considers 
their modification by the agencies of heat, light, gravitation, magnetism, and 
electricity. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia introduces the general sub- 
ject under the title of Physics and gives a very full treatment of the related 
topics. Students will find the treatment very helpful for home and school work. 
In addition to the special articles, attention is called to the following 

Outline on Physics. 



I. Definition. 

II. Branches. 

1. Physical science. 

2. Natural science. 

III. Matter. 

1. General properties. 

A. Extension. 

B. Impenetrability, 

C. DivisibiHty. 

D. Porosity. 

E. Indestructibility. 

2. Specific properties. 

A. Ductility. 

B. Malleability. 

C. Tenacity. 

D. Elasticity. 

E. Hardness. 

F. Brittleness. 

IV. Dynamics. 

1. Statics. 

2. Kinetics. 

A. Laws (Three primary). 

a. Inertia — Power of 

inertia. 

b. Momentum. 



3. Force. 

A. Systems of measuring. 

a. Metric — Dyne, unit of. 

b. English — Poundal, 

standard of. 

c. Horse power. 

B. Effects produced by action. 

a. Point of application. 

b. Direction. 

c. Intensity. 

C. Resolution. 

D. Composition of forces. 

E. Classes. 

a. Parallel. 

b. Constant. 

c. Accelerating. 

d. Resultant. 

e. Uniform. 

f. Variable. 

F. Parallelogram of forces. 

G. Unit. 

H. Centrifugal and 

centripetal. 
I. Tangent. 
J. Field. 



281 



4, Attraction. 

A. Holds together molecules 

of different kinds. 

B. Takes place between two 

solids; solid and liquid; 
or solid and gas. 

C. Acts only at insensible dis- 

tances. 

D. Differs from chemical 

affinity. 

E. Capillarity. 

F. Diffusion. 

G. Osmosis. 
H. Solution. ■ 

5. Cohesion. 

A. Holds together molecules 

of the same kind or body. 

B. Strong in solids. 

C. Weak in liquids. 

D. Absent in gases. 

E. Altered by tempering. 

F. Forms. 

6. Gravity. 

A. Laws. 

B. Forces — Attractive and 

projectile. 

C. Mass and weight. 

D. Specific gravity. 

E. Center of gravity. 

F. Falling bodies. 

G. Moving bodies. 
H. Pendulum. 

a. Movements. 

b. Laws. 

c. Kinds. 

d. Uses. 

V. Mechanical Powers. 

1. Wedge. 

2. Screw. 

3. Inclined plane. 

4. Lever. 

5. Pulley. 

6. Wheel and axle. 

VL Hydrostatics. 

1. Pressure and equilibrium of 

liquids. 
3. Rules. 

3. Pascal's law. 

4. Demonstrations. 

5. Machinery. 

6. Equilibrium of floating bodies. 

7. Buoyancy of liquids. 

8. Specific gravity of liquids. 

9. Laws of equilibrium (4). 

282 








Screw Gear. 
Bevel Gears. 



WHEELS. 
ElliDtical Gears. 
Pulley. 



Sprocket Wheel. 
Escapement. 



Vn. Pneumatics, 
1. Gas. 

A. Molecules — Move freely. 

B. Repulsive tendency. 

C. Properties. 

a. Density. 

b. Weight. 

c. Pressure. 

d. Elasticity. 

e. Condensation. 

f. Rarefaction. 

g. Equilibrium. 
h. Diffusion. 

D. Machines. 

E. Tools. 

a. Percussion. 

b. Rotar3^ 

VTH. ]\L\GNETISM. 

L Origin of name. 

2. Magnetite. 

3. Magnet. 

A. Natural and artificial. 

B. Temporary or permanent. 

C. Poles. 

D. Paramagnetic or 

diamagnetic. 

E. Field. 

4. Compass. 

A. Needle. 

B. Declination. 

C. Variation. 

D. Inclination. 

E. Dipping. 

F. Uses. 

G. Kinds. 
IX. Other Divisions. 

1. Sound. 

2. Light. 

3. Heat. 

4. Electricity, 



Accumulator. 
Aerostatic Press. 
Air Compressor. 
Air Pump. 
Archimedes' Screw, 
Arc Light. 
Argand Lamp. 
Armature. 
Balance. 
Barometer. 
Barker's Mill. 
Blowpipe. 
Compass. 
Camera Lucida. 



X. IN.STRUMENTS. 

Camera Obscura. 
Compass. 
Crookes' Tubes. 
Cyameter. 
Dynamo. 

Electric Generator. 
Electric Light. 
Electric Meter. 
Electric Motor. 
Electrometer. 
Field Glass. 
Galvanic Battery. 
Galvanometer. 
Geissler's Tube. 



Induction Coil. 

Insulator. 

Kinetoscope. 

Leyden Jar. 

Magic Lantern. 

Magnet. 

Microscope. 

Mirror. 

Opera Glass. 

Prism. 

Siphon. 

Spectroscope. 

Tuning Fork. 

Voltmeter. 



Questions in Physics. 



Of what does the science of physics treat? Name its two general divisions. 

State the three forms of matter. Name its general properties. 

What is the atomic theory, and by whom was it originated? 180. 

State the three principal laws of force according to Newton. 

What is a spectrum ? Name in order the series of colors. 

Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion. 

What is gravity? Specific gravity has reference to what? 1184. 

AVhat would become of loose objects on the earth's surface if gravity did not 
exist ? 

By whom were the steam engine and the steam hammer invented, and of 
what use are they? 

With what form of matter does pneumatics deal? Tell of the uses of gas, 
natural and artificial. 

Describe the pulley. To what power does it belong? 2332. 

Tell of the origin of the name magnetism. Give names of the various kinds 
of magnets. 

State the four laws of equilibrium in the study of hydrostatics. 1350. 

For what are the following" used : barometer, galvanometer, electric meter, 
and voltmeter? 

How may air be liquefied? For what is it then useful? 1600. 

What are extension and expansion, and by what are they caused ? 

What is a lever? Describe three classes. 

How are annealing and tempering accomplished? 

W' hat discoveries did Galileo make in regard to falling bodies ? What did 
Newton demonstrate later? 973. 



1. Generation. 

2. Temperature. 

3. Powers.' 

A. Vaporizing. 

B. Expanding. 

C. Melting. 

D. Decomposing. 

4. Manifestation. 

5. Theory of undulation. 

A. Oscillation. 

B. Ether. 



6. Sources. 

7. Production. 

A. Friction. 

B. Percussion. 

C. Chemical action. 

8. Effects. 

A. Exceptions. 

9. Transmission. 

10. Radiated heat. 

11. Thermometers. 
13. Calorimetry. 



283 



1. Sources. 

2. Action — Heating and chemical. 

3. Importance. 

A. Vegetation. 

B. Animals. 

C. Sanitation. 

D. Health. 

4. Self-luminous bodies. 

5. Theory. 



Questions. 

What is temperature, and how is it indicated ? 

What powers does heat possess? 

Explain the theory of undulation. 

Describe the three principal thermometers. 

How is motion produced in heated air? 

How is chemical energy transformed into sensible heat? 

What is the effect of heat upon all solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies ? 

What is meant by radiated heat? 

Which branch of science treats of the measurement of quantities of heat? 

Why is a space left between the rails in a railroad track when they are laid ? 

What are the sources of heat? Which one furnishes us both heat and light? 

Light. 

A. Undulatory. 

a. Propagation. 

b. Transfer. 

c. Velocity. 
- B. Effects of ether waves. 

a. Heating. 

b. Luminous. 

c. Affinic. 

6. Properties. 

A. Classes. 

a. Transparent. 

b. Translucent. 

c. Opaque. 

B. Ray — Beam, pencil, 
a. Converging and diverging. 

C. Movement — Variation. 

7. Reflection. 

A. When. C. Conditions. 

B. Laws. D. Reflectors. "« 

8. Refraction. 

A. On water surface. 

B. Occurrence. 

C. Lens — Double complex. 

D. Rules. 

E. Optics. 

a. Definition. 

b. Treatise. 

c. Instruments. 

9. History. 

A. Knowledge of ancients. 

B. Fables. 

C. Solar spectrum. 

D. Discoverers and inventors. 




MONOCULAR MICROSCOPE;. 
■4. Eye-piece; B, Object glass; C, Screw to focustubes; 
D, Mirror to reflect light on object to be examined. 

284 



Ampere. 

Archimedes. 

Becquerel. 

Bunsen. 

Descartes. 

Fahrenheit. 

Faraday. 

Fraunhofer. 

Galileo. 

Galvani. 



Gay-Lussac. 

Geissler. 

Helmholtz. 

Kepler. 

Laplace. 

Michelson, 

Newton. 

Roentgen, 

Torricelli. 

Volta. 



Questions. 

Illustrate the importance of light to vegetable growth. 
Of what benefit is it to man? From whence does natural light come? 
State four kinds of artificial light. 
Explain the generally accepted theory of light. 

How frequent must the luminous waves occur to produce the sensation of 
light and to afifect the eye ? 

Name and define three classes of bodies in connection with light. 
When is light said to be reflected? Name some good reflectors. 
Explain refraction. By whom was the law of refraction discovered? 
What does the science of optics embrace? 
State the discoveries made by Kepler, Malus, and Descartes. 
Describe an X-ray machine and its use. 



Sound. 



1. 


Definitions. 






C. Tones and unison of tones 


2. 


Production. 






D. Vibration. 


3. 


Induction. 






E. Chords and discords. 


4. 


Transmission. 






F. Harmonics. 




A. Through air. 




7. 


Echo. 




B. In solids. 




8. 


Noise. 




C. In liquids. 




9. 


Speaking trumpet — Megaphone, 


5. 


Sound waves. 




10. 


Ear trumpet. 




A. Rate of motion. 




12. 


Refraction and reflection. 




B. How propelled. 




13. 


Promoters of acoustics. 




C. Travel best with the wind. 




A. Pythagoras. 




D. May be reflected, 


refracted 




B. Aristotle. 




and inflected. 






C. Newton. 




E. Measurement. 






D. Laplace. 




F. Velocity. 






E. Helmholtz. 




G. Temperature. 




14. 


Laws of acoustics. 


6. 


Musical sounds. 






A. Public buildings. 




A. Impulses. 






a. Gallery of Saint Paul's, 




B. Rate and pitch. 






London. 






Questions. 



Give two definitions of sound. 

Explain how the impression of sound is carried to the brain. 

Why are sounds not heard which are made in a vacuum ? 

Verify the statement that "sounds may be better heard by solids as con- 
ductors than when they are conducted by liquids or gases." 2079. 

At what rate does sound travel? How long would it take a sound to travel 
twenty miles? 

What is a speaking trumpet? Who invented the megaphone? 1750. 

To whom does the science of sound particularly owe its progress? 

State some principles of acoustics needful in the planning of public buildings. 

Where is the whispering gallery ? Name a lake in Ireland which is noted for 
its echo. 864. 

285 



Electricity, 



1. Derivation of Name 

II. Definitions. 

A. Statical or frictional electricity. 

a. How produced. 

B. Dynamical electricity. 

a. Development. 

1. Magnetism. 

2. Heat. 
3. 'Chemical action. 

b. Currents. 

E. Voltaic or galvanic. 

a. Experiments. 

F. Electrics and nonelectrics. 

G. Conductors and nonconductors. 
H. Insulator— Resistance. 
I. Positive and negative electricity 

a. Repulsion and attraction. 

b. Charge — Low potential and 

zero potential. 

III. Electroscope. 

A. Use. 

B. Construction. 

C. Illustration. 

IV. Electrification. 

A. Electric current. 

a. Electric battery. 

b. Voltaic battery. 

c. Dynamo. 

B. Electromotive force. 

C. Electric source. 

V. Velocity. 

A. Dependence. 

VI. Electrical Quantities. 
A. Ohm's Law. 

"B. Units — Volt, ohm, and ampere. 

VII. Uses. 

Revolution in economic enterprises. 

A. Heating agency — Homes, ofifices, railway cars, etc. 

B. Welding; electrotyping. 

C. Lighting; medical uses of. 

D. Propelling power. 

E. Electric spark — Firing explosives. 

F. Telephone and telegraph. 

G. X-ray, telautograph. 
H. Phototelegraphy. 

VIII. History. 

A. Writings of Thales. 

B. William Gilbert's On the Magnet. 

C. First electrical machine. 

D. Invention of Ley den jar. 

E. Experiments and discovery of Franklin. 

F. Animal electricity. 

G. Volta's discovery. 
H. Inventors. 

Morse. Bell. Faraday. 

Edison. Tesla. Roentgen. 

Ohm. Galvani. Marconi. 

286 




the dvxamo. 



Siemens. 
Ampere. 
Guericke. 



Questions on Electricity. 

From what was the name electricity derived? 

Define frictional electricity, electrics, insulator, and electrolysis. 

Give a list of nonconductors. Distinguish between positive and negative elec- 
tricity. 893. 

When is a body said to be charged? 

What is a volt? How many volts can a person generally bear? 

Of what is the ampere the unit ? What is Ohm's Law ? 

State the various uses of electricity in your community. 

What is the Leyden jar? By whom was it invented? 1580. 

Of what particular value to science was Franklin's discovery regarding 
electricity? 

Give a list of noted discoverers in the science of electricity. 

What is electrocution and where is it employed? 

Describe an electric motor. By what is electricity measured ? 

Write an article on Electric Railways. 895. 

Speak of electricity as an agent in medical science. 



Magnetism. 

That power which, like a pote. t spirit, guides 
The sea-wide wanderers over distant tides, 
Inspiring confidence where'er they roam, 
By indicating still the pathway home; — 
Through Nature, quickened by the solar beam, 
Invests each atom with a force supreme, 
Directs the cavern'd crystal in its birth. 
And frames the mightiest mountains of the earth. 
Each leaf and flower by its strong law restrains 
And binds the monarch Man within its mystic chains, 

— Hunt. 



The Love of Country. 

Breathes there the man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land? 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned, 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand? 

If such there breathe, go, mark him well ! 
For him no minstrel raptures swell; 
High though his titles, proud his name, 
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim, — 
Despite those titles, power, and pelf, 
The wretch, concentered all in self. 
Living, shall forfeit fair renown. 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 
To the vile dust, from whence he sprung. 
Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. 

—Sir Walter Sc«H. 

287 




Nor love, nor honor, wealth, nor power, 
' Can give the heart a cheerful hour ^ 

When health is lost. Be timely wise; 
With health all taste of pleasure flies. 

— Gay. 

PHYSIOLOGY treats of the phenomena of Hving organisms and the proc- 
esses which characterize Hfe. This subject is explained in the topic entitled 
Physiology, but innumerable other titles are treated in a helpful manner. 

The importance of this branch is well known to the student of experience. 
It is clear to him that an understanding of this subject is essential in caring for 
the body in a way that will help to develop and preserve physical powers. At an 
early stage in civilization, when comparatively little was understood of the laws 
of growth, life was dependent largely upon chance, but at present the length and 
pleasure of living may be wisely guided by the trained intellect. 

The infant should be cared for by parents who know and practice the right 
modes of living. The youth needs an early training to understand the laws which 
govern physical phenomena. Not only that, but he should be trained to obey the 
laws of nature and to apply wisely the instruction given. This will not only 
extend the period of life, especially if right living is practiced through succeeding 
generations, but it will increase the joys and successes that may be attained. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is recommended as a prac- 
tical guide in this branch of science. As an introduction to the course given in the 
outlines, students are referred to the following 



Correlated Subjects. 



Abdomen. 


Ear. 


Hygiene. 


Nutrition. 


Anatomv. 


Embryology. 


Intestines. 


Proteids. 


Animal. 


Evolution. 


Kidney. 


Protoplasm. 


Assimilation. 


Eye. 


Ligament. 


Respiration. 


Bile. 


Food. 


Liver. 


Saliva. 


P>iology. 


Foot. 


Longevity. 


Skeleton. 


Bone. 


Function. 


Lungs. 


Skin. 


Brain. 


(^land. 


Lymphatic Svstem. 


Spontaneous 


Cells. 


Hair. 


Mastication. 


Generation 


Chest. 


Hand. 


Muscle. 


Stomach. 


Chyle. 


Heart. 


Nails. 


Taste. 


Circulation. 


Heredity. 


Natural Selection. 


Teeth. 


Connective Tissue. 


Horn. 


Nerves. 


Tongue. 


Death. 


Hybrid. 


Nose. 


Voice. 


Digestion. 









288 



Outline in Physiology. 



Allied studies. 

A. Histology. 

B. Anatomy. 

C. Hygiene. 

D. Chemistry. 



5. 
6. 

7. 
8. 
9. 



Osseous. 
Retiform. 
White fibrous. 
Yellow elastic. 



Size. 

Composition. 

Ossification. 

Periosteum. 

Motion. 



I. Physiology. 

1. Divisions. 

A. Human. 

B. Animal. 

C. Vegetable. 

II. Human Body. 

1. Life and growth. 

A. Human physiology. 

a. Embryo. 

b. Cells. 

1. Protoplasm — Globules, molecules, granules, nucleolus 

c. Tissue. 

1. Kinds. 
Adipose. 
Areolar. 
Cartilaginous. 

d. Growth. 

e. Germ or vital force. 

2. Organs and functions. 

A. Skeleton — Head, trunk, and limbs. 

a. Bones. 

1. Purposes. 
3. Number. 

3. Names. 

4. Shape. 

b. Muscles. 

1. Number. 

2. Form. 

3. Size. 

4. Arrangement. 

5. Contraction and expansion 

6. Voluntary and involuntary, 

c. Living matter. 

1. Constituents. 
, Water. 

Salts. 
Fat. 

d. Respiration. 

1. Organs. 

Larynx. 
Glottis. 
Vocal cords. 

2. Inspiration. 

3. Expiration. 

4. Purpose. 

e. Nervous system. 

1. Brain. 

a. Center of system. 

b. Parts. 

Cerebrum. 
Cerebellum. 
Medulla oblongata. 

c. Composition — Fibers, tissues, and matter 

d. Convolutions. 

e. Weight. 

289 



7. Uses. 

8. Movements. 

9. Covering — Skin. 

a. Dermis. 

b. Epidermis. 



Proteid. 

Carbohydrate. 

Oxygen. 



Trachea. 
Bronchi. 
Lungs. 

Aided by skin and 
kidneys. 



2. 


Spinal cord. 






a. 


Location. 






b. 


Protection. 






c. 


Structure. 






d. 


Branches. 




3. 


Nerves. 






a. 


Structure — Cells, fibers, 


and nerve end organs, 




b. 


Classes. 
Sensory. 
Motory. 






c. 


Kinds. 
1. Spinal — 31 pairs. 








Posterior and anterior. 






2. Cranial — 12 pairs. 








Olfactory. 


Auditory. 






Optic. 


Glossopharyngeal. 






Motores oculi (3) 


. Pneumogastric. 






Trifacial. 


Accessory. 


« 




Facial. 
3. S)^mpathetic. 


Hypoglossal. 




d. 


Reflex action. 






e. 


Development. 





f. Senses — Smell, touch, taste, sight, hearing. 
III. Special Topics. 

1. Circulatory system. 
A. Organs. 

a. HEART. 

1. Size and shape. 

2. Muscular. 

3. Pericardium. 

4. Chambers. 

a. Auricles. ' 

b. Ventricles. 

5. Valves. 

a.- Bicuspid or mitral. 

b. Tricuspid. 

c. Semilunar. 

6. Movements. 

a. Systole or contraction. 

b. Diastole or expansion. 

b. ARTERIES. 

1. Origin of name. 

2. Lead from left ventricle. 

3. Carry pure blood. , 

4. Walls. 

5. Coats. 

6. Names — Aorta, pulmonarv, etc. 

c. VEINS. 

1. Convey blood to the heart. 

2. Carry venous or bad blood. 

3. Walls — Compare with arteries. 

4. Near the surface. 

5. Names — Vena cava ascending, vena cava descending, pul- 

monary, portal, jugular, etc. 

d. Capillaries. 

290 



B. BLOOD. 

a. Composition. 

1. Plasma. 

2. Corpuscles. 

b. Coagulation. 

c. Transfusion. 

C. Circulation. 

a. Systematic. 

1. Collected in left ventricle. 

2. Propelled through aorta and its arterial branches and capil- 

laries to all parts of body. 

3. Returns through veins to right auricle. 

b. Pulmonic. 

1. Passes from right ventricle into pulmonary artery and its 

branches to lungs for purification. 
. 2. Collects and returns through pulmonary veins to left auricle ; 
thence into left ventricle and again enters sys- 
tematic system. 

2. DIGESTION. 

A. Process of what. 

B. Begins in the mouth. 

a. Food chewed and ground by the teeth. 

b. Solids broken into bits, moistened with saliva, mixed well, 

formed into bolus, and swallowed. 

c. Passes through aesophagus into stomach. 

d. Churning process mixes ingredients. 

e. Subjected to action of pepsin from gastric juice. 

f . Starches and fats loosened ; protoplasm dissolved ; proteids con- 

verted into peptones. 

g. Time required is from 3 to 4 hours. 

h. This chyme then enters intestines through pylorus. 

i. Acted upon by bile, pancreatic juice, intestinal secretions. 

j. Starches converted into sugar; proteids into peptones; fats into 

emulsion, 
k. This chyle is then absorbed by portal blood vessels and lacteals. 
1. Acid formation and further absorption extends to larger 

intestines. 

3. EAR. 

A. Parts. 

a. External or concha. 

1. Auditory canal — Size. 

2. Auricle or pinna — Collects sound waves. 

3. Muscles. 

4. Wax. 

b. Middle or tympanum. 

1. Size. 

2. Lining. 

3. Cavity — Mastoid process. 

4. Eustachian tube. 

5. Bones — Ossicles. 

a. Malleus or hammer. 

b. Incus or anvil. 

c. Stapes or stirrup. 

c. Internal or labyrinth. 

1. Vestibule. 4. Liquid. 

2. Cochlea. 5. Cells — Nerve ends. 

3. Semicircular canals. 6. Ear sands. 

291 



B. How we hear. 






a. Production of sound waves in liquid. 




b. Speed. 






c. Vibrations — Number. 






d. Incentives to nerve action. 




e. Hindrances. 






f. Impressions and illusions. 




4. EYE. 






A. Description. 






a. Globe or eyeball. 






b. Orbit. 


, 




c. Size and shape. 






d. Coats. 






1. Sclerotic. 


4. Retina. 




2. Cornea. 


5. Iris. 




3. Choroid. 






e. Liquids. 






1. Aqueous humor. 






2. Vitreous humor. 






f. Pupil. 


i. Color. 




g. Lens. 


j. Muscles. 




h. Ciliary process. 


k. Protection. 




1. Eyebrows. 




2. Eyelids. 




3. Eyelashes. 


1. Lachrymal glands, canal 


s, lakes, ducts. 




m. Tears. 






13. Phenomenon of sight. 






a. Dependent upon ether. 






b. Waves of light. 


g. Illusions 




c. Nerve of sight — Optic. 


h. Color-bli 


indness. 


d. Blind spot. 


i. Farsightedness. 


e. Focus. 


j. Nearsightedness. 


f. Accommodation. 


k. Care of the eyes. 


5. DISEASE. 






A. Classes. 






a. Organic. 






b. Functional. 






B. Causes. 






a. Diathetic. 






b. Enthetic. 






Diseases Common to Man. 




Ague. Epilepsy. 


Leprosy. 


Rheumatism. 


Anaemia. Erysipelas. 


Lumbago. 


Scrofula. 


Apoplexy. Fever. 


Malaria. 


Smallpox. 


Appendicitis. Glanders. 


Measles. 


Sprain. 


Asphyxia. Gout. 


Mumps. 


Saint Vitus 


Bright's Disease. Headache. 


Neuralgia. 


Dance. 


Bronchitis. Hydrophobia. 


Neurosis. 


Sunstroke. 


Cancer. Hysteria. 


Paralysis. 


Tuberculosis. 


Catarrh. Influenza. 


Pleurisy. 


Tumor. 


Cholera. Insanity. 


Pneumonia. 


Typhoid Fever. 


Consumption. Itch. 


Poison. 


Typhus Fever. 


Croup. Jaundice. 


Quinsy. 


Whooping Cough. 


Diphtheria. 







292 



Questions on Physiology. 

Define physiology and name its chief divisions. 2206. 
Of what do anatomy and hygiene treat ? 
What are tissues ? Name the principal kinds. 

Of what is the skeleton composed ? Give the number and names of the bones. 
Of what uses are muscles? Explain contraction and expansion. 1876. 
Distinguish between voluntary and involuntary muscles. 
What are the organs of respiration? Write 12 lines on this subject. 
Name the divisions of the alimentary canal. Describe the process of 
digestion. 

Name the fluids which aid digestion and tell by what each is secreted. 

Illustrate the heart and its divisions by a drawing. 1375. 

Name the two systems of circulation and describe them. 

Tell about the color, density, taste, composition, and use of the blood. 

Define membrane, albumen, pulse, lacteals, dura mater, and coagulation. 

Tell of the growth and use of the hair and nails. 

Of what is the nervous system composed? Describe the brain. 

Name the three divisions of the ear. Explain how we hear. 853. 

What is meant by the phenomenon of sight ? How may poor sight be aided ? 

How many teeth should an adult have ? Give names of the different teeth. 



The Body. 

From the top of my head to my tiny toes, 
I am built of bones, as every one knows. 
These are the framework so strong within; 
Outside they are covered with flesh and skin. 

The parts of my body are only three. 

My head, my trunk and my limbs, as you see. 

My head has a back, two sides and a crown, 

All covered with hair, yellow, black, red or brown. 

And just in front, in the foremost place. 
You plainly can see my neat little face. 
My face has a forehead, nose, mouth and chin; 
Two cheeks where the dimples slip out and in. 

Two eyes you see when you are near, 
Two ears like sea-shells to help me to hear. 
My neck and shoulders so broad and strong. 
Arm, forearm, wrist, hand and fingers long. 

My trunk and my thighs, legs, and ankles and knees, 
On two feet I stand, or run, if I please. 
My joints are to bend when I run, jump or walk; 
I've a little red tongue to help me to talk. 

These make up my body, and now I will tell 
What we all must do to keep strong and well. 

To be neat and clean we must take great care, 
Have plenty of sunshine and breathe the fresh air; 
Eat nourishing food to make good blood, and then. 
We all shall become strong women and men. 

293 




Games and Sports 



GAMES and sports are considered essential in the development of physical 
skill, bodily strength, and mental activity. They aid in securing the 
healthful development of the body, making it fit as a dwelling for a vigor- 
ous mind. Froebel said, "Play is not trivial ; it is highly serious and with deep 
meaning." 

The aims in promoting healthful, yet playful, exercise are numerous. They 
tend to overcome bodily defects, such as narrowness of the chest and stooping 
of the shoulders, and furnish the recreation and relaxation which should follow 
sustained study. Above all, games and sports are both hygienic and educative 
in that they invigorate the circulation, enlarge respiration, and induce harmony 
of action between the body and the mind. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is helpful in the study of 
amusements and plays for all classes. The student is referred to the special 
articles on the following list of 

Plays and Pastimes. 



Angling. 


Cards. 


Fencing. 


Roulette. 


Archery. 


Checkers. 


Gymnasium. 


Rowing. 


Athletics. 


Chess. 


Lacrosse. 


Skates. 


Backgammon. 


Cribbage. 


Lawn Tennis. 


Swimming. 


Bagatelle. 


Cricket. 


Marble. 


Tennis. 


Baseball. 


Croquet. 


Ping Ponc^. 


Toboggan. 


Basketball. 


Curling. 


Polo. 


Trapping. 


Billiards. 


Delsarte. 


Pool. 


Trolling. 


Boxing. 


Dice. 


Quoits. 


Whist.'' 


Bullfight. 


Dominoes. 


Race. 


Wresthng. 


Canoe. 


Falconry. 


Riding. 


Yachting. 




Outlines of Games and Sports, 


I. Divisions. 








1. Recreative. 






2. Amateur 








3. Professional. 






A. Classes. 






a. 


Grecian. 






b. 


Gladiatorial. 






c. 


Modern. 








1. Competitive. 2. 


Contestant. 




11. Kinds. 








1. Indoor. 




2. Outdoor. 




Bowling. 


Checkers. 


Ball. 


Croquet. 


Billiards. 


Dominoes. 


Cricket. 


Golf. 


Cards. 


Legerdemain 


Archery. 


Tennis. 


Chess. 


Dice. 


Polo. 


Lacrosse 



294 



3. Sports. 

Hunting, Boxing. 

Shooting. Wrestling. 

Racing. Cycling. 

Boating. Fishing. 

4. Field. 

Hurdling. 

Pole vaulting. 

Broad jumping. 

High jumping. 

Hammer, or weight throwing. 

5. Track. 

Sprinting, 
ni. Training. 

1. Athletic. 

2. Calisthenic. 

3. Physical culture. 

4. Dancing. 

5. Gymnastic. 

6. Boxing. 

7. Wrestling, etc. 
IV. Association. 

1. Canadian Amateur Athletic 

Union. 

A. Games. 

B. Time and place. 

C. Records. 

D. Championship. 

2. Intercollegiate Athletic Associa- 

tion of United States. 

A. Games. 

B. When and where. 

C. Records. 

3. New England Intercollegiate 

Association. 

4. Western Intercollegiate Games. 

5. National Amateur Athletic 

Union. 
Value. 
1. Develops physical perfection 
and skill. 



■ LoweR 5TAne 


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f . 






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i 














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\ /" 






\ / 






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^*\ 






/' V 






/I 


V\ 


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^--h ^ 






■* 1 

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, A 


» 




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ROVEft A 






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hon^ STA.nE 





V. 



CROQUET GROUNDS. 

3. Promotes speed, agility, en- 
durance, etc. 

3. Quickens thought. 

4. Serves as entertainment, 

amusement, and recrea- 
tion. 

5. Cultivates temperance, s e 1 f - 

denial, etc. 



I. Basketball. 



Indoor game. 

Played in large oblong room. 

Goal — 18-in. net basket at each end of room suspended 10 ft. above floor. 

Ball — Leather cased inflated rubber bladder, 33 in. around. 

Teams — 2, of 5 players each. 

A. Guards — Right and left. 

B. Center. D. Referee. 

C. Forwards — Right and left. E. Order of game. 
Invented by James Naismith, in 1891. 

Popularity. 

A. Militia companies. 

B. Young Women's Christian Association. 

C. Young Men's Christian Association. 

D. Schools and colleges. 
Season — Winter. 

295 



II. Football. 

1. Popularity. 

A. Ancient Greece and Rome. 

B. England — 12th century. 

C. America. 

D. Australia, etc. 

2. Participants. 

A. Higher grade pupils. 

B. Students of colleges and universities. 

3. Description. 

A. Field. 

B. Teams. 

C. Players. 

D. Officials. 

E. Position. 

F. Goal. 

G. Rules. 

a. Association. 

b. Rugby. 
H. Restrictions. 
I. Movements. 
J. Scoring. 

4. Associations. 

A. Rugby. 

B. Australian. 

C. American Intercollegiate. 

D. Big Four. 

a. Harvard. 

b. Princeton. 

c. Yale. 

d. University of Pennsylvania. 

E. Others. 

a. Western. 

b. Canadian. 

c. Indian, etc. 

III. Baseball. 

1. National game. 

2. Originally town ball. 

3. Institution of professional organization in 1871. 

4. Clubs. 

A. National Association of Baseball Players. 

B. National League of Professional Clubs. 

C. American League. 

5. Development of professional skill, 

6. Adoption of standard rules. 

7. Public exhibits. 

8. Tours. 

9. Games. 

A. Season. 

B. Ball — Size and weight. 

C. Bat — Material and length. 

D. Field — Diamond. 

E. Men — Umpire, catcher, batsman, pitcher, etc. 

F. Proceedings. 

G. Innings. 
H. Rules. 

296 



I 

Questions. 

Name the national games of England and United States. 

Describe a game of baseball. 240. 

Among what class of people is football played most extensively? Name 
seme of the benefits derived from this game. 

What sports can you name in connection with water? 

What was the moral influence of the athletics in the early Grecian and 
Roman days? 

Name some games which give intellectual training. 

What is the general attitude of schools toward athletics? 

State some reasons for increasing popularity of outdoor recreation. 

Define umpire, coach, score, goal, racket, and alley. 

Name a school of England famous for its athletic enthusiasm. 

Who invented the game of basketball? By whom is it played most exten- 
sively? 243. 

Give a list of games that may be played with cards. 

When and why were the gladiatorial games forbidden? 1147. 



The Philosophy of Sport. 



Bear lightly on their foreheads, Time ! 

Strew roses on their ,way ; 
The young in heart, however old, 

That prize the present day. 
And, wiser than the pompous proud. 

Are wise enough to play. 

I love to see a man forget 

His blood is growing cold. 
And leap, or swim, or gather flowers, 

Oblivious of his r;old. 
And mix with children in their sport, 

Nor think that he is old. 

I love to see the man of care 

Take pleasure in a toy, 
I love to see him row or ride, 

And tread the grass with joy. 
Or hunt the flying cricket-ball 

As lusty as a boy. 

All sorts that spare the humblest pain, 
That neither maim nor kill — 

That leads us to the quiet field. 
Or to the wholesome hill, 

Are duties which the pure of heart 
Religiously fulfill. 



Though some may laugh the full-grown men 

May frolic in the wood, 
Like children let adrift from school, — 

Not mine that scornful mood ; — 
I honor human happiness. 

And deem it gratitude. 

And, though perchance the Cricketer, 

Or Chinaman that flies 
His Dragon-kite with boys and girls, 

May seem to some unwise, 
I see no folly in their play, 

But sense that underlies. 

The road of life is hard enough — 
Bestrewn with snag and thorn ; 

I would not mock the simplest joy 
That made it less forlorn ; 

But fill its evening path with flowers 
As fresh as those of morn. 

'Tis something, when the moon has passed 

To brave the touch of Time, 
And say, "Good friend, thou harm'st me not. 

My soul is in its prime : 
Thou canst not chill my warmth of heart;— 

I carol while I climb." 



Give us but health, and peace of mind, 

Whate'er our clime or clan. 
We'll take delight in simple things, 

Nor deem that sports unman; 
And let the proud, who fly no kites. 

Despise us if they can ! 

— Chas. Mackay. 

297 
















No ! failure's a part of the infinite plan : 
Who finds that he can't, must give way to who can ; 
And as one and another drop out of the race, 
Each stumbles at last to his suitable place, 

— Crangles. 

COMMERCE is the exchange of goods or property between nations or the 
subdivisions of nations, such as states and provinces. Transportation 
consists of the industry of carrying goods and persons from one place 
to another. Collectively, commerce and transportation constitute important 
factors in the trade between states and nations. 

The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia contains the information 
that is needed by students of commerce and transportation. It furnishes the 
material which is essential in the study of these branches of learning. For 
research work the student is referred to the following 



Correlated Subjects. 



Banking. 

Boat. 

Bounty. 

Breakwater. 

Canal. 

Caravan. 

Carrier. 

Commerce. 

Commercial Law. 

Customs Duty. 

Dam. 

Dock. 

Duties. 

I. TRADE. 



Electric Railway. 

Erie Canal. 

Exchange. 

Excise. 

Hanseatic League. 

Harbor. 

International Law. 

Interstate Commerce. 

Jetty. 

Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. 

Levee. 

Money. 

Navigation. 



Navy. 

Panama Canal. 

Protection. 

Railroads. 

Road. 

Sault Sainte Marie Canal. 

Ship. 

Steamboat. 

Suez Canal. 

Tariff. 

Tramway. 

Transportation. 

Weather Bureau. 

Welland Canal. 



1. Origin and growth of trade. 

a. Earliest form of trade- 

What called. 

b. Conditions that gave 

to trade relations. 

c. Influences that have a ten- 

dency to develop trade, 
i. e., social, economic, 
dustrial, climatic, etc. 

2. Object and purpose of trade. 

a. To the individual. 

b. To society. 

c. To mankind in general. 



rise 



m- 



3. Results of trade. 

a. Material results. 

b. Social and economic re- 

sults. 

c. Intellectual results. 

4. Trade Centers. 

a. Location — The determin- 

ing factors.' 

b. Growth — Upon what it de- 

pends. 

c. Earliest trade centers — 

Where found, and why. 

d. Influence of trade centers 

upon the growth of towns 
and cities. 



298 



e. The world's greatest trade 
centers — Location and 
why so located. 

5. New York as a trade center. 

a. Why so located. 

b. Connection with other 

great centers of com- 
merce. 

Character of the trade — 
Industries and business 
that developed as a result. 

Chief factors in its growth. 

Manufactures and markets. 

Export and import trade. 

Commercial importance. 



c. 



6. Important trade centers of the 

United States. 

a. Location with reasons for 

same. 

b. Growth — Chief factors of. 

c. Extent of territory reached. 

d. Manufactures and mar- 

kets. 

e. Population and industries. 

f. Export and import trade. 

g. Commercial importance. 

7. Trade centers of Canada and 

North America treated in 
a similar manner. 

8. Trade centers of South Amer- 

ica, Europe, Asia, Africa, 
AustraUa, and the isles 
of the Sea treated with 
special reference to loca- 
tion, industries and man- 
ufactures, population, and 
commercial importance. 





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FLYING MACHINE. 



What wonders man has wrought 
The recent centuries best to us portray; 
In every field his studious mind has sought 
And found things beautiful in wide array. 
No more can Jupiter impale and blight, 
Nor tyranny suppress the growth of mind ; 
To think is now a universal right, 
Safe and secure in all mankind. 

—B. P. Hoist. 



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Suggestions. 



1. Study the surface conditions of 

the countries where great 
trade centers are found. 
In a similar manner study 
climate, soil, vegetation, 
animals, and occupations 
of the people. 

2. Locate places with special ref- 

erence to New York and 
the great trade centers of 



the United States 
North America. 



and 



3. Locate countries with special 

reference to the United 
States and North Amer- 
ica. 

4. Study the maps. Have the 

students make sketch and 
relief maps of their own. 

5. Let the object be to study 

conditions, obtain facts, 
and fix places. 



299 




Diagram to show the general maxi- 
mum speed attained by various means 
of transportation. The automobile 
has the highest record. 



II. TRANSPORTATION. 

1. Origin and growth of trans- 

portation. 
a. Connection with the earliest 
forms of trade. 
. b. Earliest ways and means of 
transportation. 

c. Inventions and discoveries 

that have influenced the 
growth of transportation. 

d. Conditions that make trans- 

portation necessary. 

2. Means of transportation. 

a. Man — The earliest factor. 

b. The ox, pack horse, and 

other animals used. 

c. The cart, wagon, stage 

coach, steam cars, cable 
and electric cars, automo- 
biles, and flying machines. 

d. The raft, rowboat, sail- 

boat, steamboat. 

3. Ways of transportation. 

a. Water transportation. 

1. Rivers. 

a. Where found. 

b. Source, direction, size 
and length, mouth, cur- 
rent. 

c. Character and extent of 
country drained. 

d. River systems. 

2. Conditions favorable to 
transportation. 

a. Swift current. 

b. Direct course. 

c. Smooth, clean bed. 

d. Good landings. 

3. Improvements necessary. 

a. Removal of lodged tim- 
bers, boulders, and sand 
bars. 

b. The building of dikes 
and levees. 

c. Prevention of change in 
current or river bed. 

d. T h e construction o f 
wharves. 

4. The Great Navigable 
Rivers. 

a. United States and North 
America. 

b. South America, Europe, 
Asia, Africa, and Aus- 
tralia. 



300 



c. Nature and extent of the 
country drained. 

d. How far navigable. 

e. Points of trade and 
trade centers connected. 

f . Climate, surface, soil, 
and productions of coun- 
try drained. 

g. Character and amount of 
goods transported — Cost 
of transportation. 

5. Lakes. 

a. Where found. 

b. Size and extent. 

c. Inlets and outlets. 

d. Nature and extent of 
territory reached — Cli- 
mate, surface, soil, and 
productions of same. 

e. T h e world's greatest 
commercial lakes — Trade 
centers reached by and 
through them. 

f. Quality and quantity of 
goods transported. 

6. Canals. 

a. Origin and purpose of 
the canal. 

b. Its connection with lake 
and river transportation. 

c. How constructed — Depth 
of water, width of ca- 
nal, and points con- 
nected. 

d. Conduct of canal trans- 
portation — Extent and 
cost. 

e. Growth and improvement 
in canal transportation. 

7. Canals in Canada and the 
United States. 

a. Where found. 

b. When and how built. 

c. Cost of construction. 

d. Points connected. 

e. How operated. 

f. Extent and cost of 
transportation. 

8. Canals in other countries 
treated in a similar man- 
ner. 

9. The world's great canals. 

a. Object and purpose. 

b. Where found, when and 
how built. 

c. Cost of construction and 
how operated. 



d. Special aid to the world's 
commerce. 

e. Points connected — Ex- 
tent and cost of transpor- 
tation. 

f. Countries especially inter- 
ested. 




TOURING CAR (AUTOMOBILE)- 

10. Oceans, seas, bays', etc. 

a. Location and extent. 

b. Countries that border on 
them. 

c. Countries separated by 
them. 

d. The world's great sea- 
ports — Where and why so 
located. 

e. The great oceans of com- 
merce. 

11. Conditions favorable to 
navigation. 

a. Smooth surface. 

b. Medium temperature. 

c. Great depth of ocean 
currents. 

d. Freedom from storms. 

e. Favorable winds. 

f. Good vessels. 

g. Good harbors and 
wharves. 

12. The great ocean routes. 

a. Points of beginning. 

b. Intermediate points. 

c. Terminal points. 

d. Goods shipped. 

e. Time and cost of trans- 
portation. 

f. A careful study of (a), 
(b), and (c), as to loca- 
tion, population, indus- 
tries and manufactures, 
exports and imports. 



301 



13. Countries that trade with 
the United States. 

a. Products produced and 
exchanged. 

b. Products bought and 
sold. 

c. Ocean routes most com- 
monly used in transporta- 
tion. 



d. Steamship lines carrying 
the trade. 

e. Seaports reached — Loca- 
tion, size, and importance. 

14. Countries that trade with 
each other (Treated ac- 
cording to outline 13). 




modern battleship— the connecticut. 

Suggestions. 

1. Trace rivers from source to mouth, describing surface and climatic con- 

ditions of countries drained, locating trade centers, naming products ob- 
tained at each, and giving the extent to which each is navigable. 

2. Locate and trace rivers on maps in the books and on outline and relief 

maps drawn by the pupils. 

3. Locate and trace canals on maps, show points connected, and emphasize 

use and importance of canal transportation. 

4. Locate the oceans, giving latitude and longitude. Give climate and pro- 

ductions of countries touched. Study the character of the coast lines 
of countries and effect of same on transportation. 

5. Make constant use of maps in tracing ocean routes and in locating sea- 

ports reached. 

Land Transportation. 
1. The old time trails. 

a. Character of the surface of countries through which such trails 

passed. 

b. Difficulties and dangers to be overcome in making transits. 

c. Time required and expense incurred. 

d. Character of the products transported. 

e. Climate, soil, and productions of the countries in which trails occur. 

f. Name, locate, and trace out the most important trails. 

g. Points connected. 

302 



2. Wagon roads or trails. 

a. Early wagon roads or trails. 

b. Nature of the country traversed. 

c. Difference between the wagon trail and the old time trail. 

d. Comparative value of the two means of transportation in points of 

time, expense, and quality and quantity of goods transported. 

e. Points and trade centers connected. 

f. Climate, soil, and productions of the country. 

g. Improvements and the wagon roads of to-day. 

3. Tramroads. 

a. Origin and purpose. 

b. Where found. 

c. How built — Cost of construction. 

d. Special use. 

e. Countries in which the tramroads are found. 

f. Points connected by them. 

g. Advantages over the old time wagon road in points of time made 

and amount of goods transported. 

4. Railroads. 

a. Origin of the railroad. 

b. Points of similarity and difference between the railroad and the tram- 

road. 

c. Manner and cost of construction. 

d. Growth and improvement. 

e. Products transported, time saved, and effect on increased production. 

f. Countries of the world in which railroads are chiefly found. 

g. How railroads aid in the development of a country. 

5. Trunk line railroads of the United States and North America. 

a. Where found. 

b. Points of beginning. 

c. Intermediate points. 

d. Terminal points. 

e. Points connected with main line by branch road. 

f. Careful study of (b), (c), and (d), as to location, population, manu- 

factures and industries, export and import trade. 
g". Time and cost of transportation. 
h. Warehouses and depots — Necessity for. 

6. Trunk line railroads of other countries; study according to outline (5). 

7. Chicago as a railroad center. 

a. Trunk lines. 

b. Branch roads. 

c. Extent of country traversed and points connected. 

d. Character and amount of trade controlled. 

e. Early connection of Chicago with the West and Southwest. How 

and over what routes (trails) were goods transported. 

f. Connection with the East and Canada — Formerly and at present. 

g. Warehouses and depots — Purpose and use of same, 
h. Daily trains entering and leaving Chicago. 

Suggestions. 

1. Use maps freely in locating and tracing railroads. Make a special study 

of trade centers connected, as to location, size, and products obtained. 
3. Locate and trace out the important trails, making a careful study of the 

conditions of the country, locating the points connected, and giving 

quality and quantity of goods transported. 

3. Make a comparative study of the countries where railroads are main- 

tained, and those without railroad facilities, as to trade, intelligence, and 
progress. 

4. Let the aim be to show the growth and development of transportation, 

and how this has contributed to the progress and well-being of man. 

20 303 



Questions on Commerce and Transportation. 

Define commerce and explain the two leading classes. 640. 

How do (he United States rank among' nations in foreign commerce? Name 
our leading exports. 

Name some helpful agencies for a thriving domestic commerce. 

How was commerce carried on in the Middle Ages? 

Which countries were great commercial nations of the ancient world? What 
reference is made in Isaiah to this? 

Of what benefits arc chambers of commerce? 

When was the Department of Commerce and Labor created? Who is now 
secretary of this department? 

What is commercial law, and what does it include? 

Compare transportation by modern facilities with those of ancient times. 

In which cotmtries are caravans used most extensively? What are their 
chief articles of trade? 

When did the rapid development of our domestic commerce begin? 

What is the Interstate Commerce Act, and what benefits are derived from 
it? 1398. 

Define tarifl^. Briefly discuss the tarifl^ of Canada. 

What is revenue? Name some nuportant tarilT bills. 

Name and locate five great canals of commercial value. 

Of what practical benefit will the Panama Canal be to the world? 

How do climate, soil, and rainfall tend to affect the commerce of a com- 
munity ? 

Tell of the leading railroad systems of the United States. Name ten impor- 
tant trade centers of the country. 

What are tnnik lines, depots, elevators, and warehouses? 

Mention the important factors which cause the development of great cities. 



Three Fishers Went Sailing. 

Thrco fishers went sailing out into the West, 
Out into the West as the sun went down ; 

Each thought on the woman who loved him best, 

And the children stood watching them out of the town : 

For men must work, and women must weep, 

And there's little to earn, and many to keep. 

Though the harhor-har be moaning. 

'riiroo wives sat up in llic Hghl-houso tower. 

And they trimmed the lamps as the sun went down; 

They looked at the squall, and they looked at the shower, 
And the night-rack came rolling up ragged and brown : 

But men must work, and women must weep. 

Though storms be sudden, and waters deep. 

And the harbor-bar be moaning. 

Three corpses lie out in the shining sands. 

In the morning gleam, as the tide went down. 

And the women were weeping and wringing their hands, 
For those who will never come home to the town. 

For men must work, and women must weep. 

And the sooner it's over, the sooner to sleep, 

And good-bye to the bar and its moaning. 

— Kingslcy. 

304 



Language 



and 



Grammar 



Languages are to be learned only by reading and talking, and not by scraps of authors 
got by heart. — Locke. 

I. Language. 

THE aim of language study is twofold: First, to teach the child to think; 
second, to teach him how to express his thoughts. 

Throughout the first three grades it will be found that more attention 
must be paid to teaching the child to think than to his expression. For this reason 
the plan of work provides for a preponderance of free expression over expression 
with a view to correctness of form. For the same reason, by far the greater 
part of the time in the schoolroom is to be spent upon oral rather than upon 
written work, since free thought is hampered by the necessity of spelling and 
forming the letters involved in writing. 

In first-year language, self-consciousness in the child must be avoided by 
every possible means. When he is telling a story, spontaneity must not be 
destroyed by interruption. Neither must correction be made after the story has 
been told. No greater fault can creep into a first-grade teacher's work than the 
inability to understand the sensitiveness of the child mind. Allow the child to 
speak freely and naturally, and to feel that he is making his story "interesting" 
to his hearers. 

The delicacy of touch with which the successful teacher handles the story- 
telling period is shown in the following report of such a recitation : First, the 
teacher tells the story; second, she asks the pupils about the way they can tell 
it to make it interesting. She does not burden them with any outline of pro- 
cedure, but endeavors to instill into their minds the idea that to make a story 
interesting they must not tell the details in a disjointed manner. This is the incul- 
cation of the principle of unity in expressing thought, and prepares the child for 
the paragraph idea in his written work taken up later. 

The teacher's story has been one of a child enjoying a ride into the country 
in a donkey cart. She supposes the case of the child telling his story, apparently 
with all its details rounded out and complete, when he suddenly remembers that 
on the drive out the donkey had upset the cart! She a.sks the class why this 
would not be a good way to tell the story, and the child, being properly led, readily 
learns to recognize the fact that it is not interesting to tell of this one incident 
of the donkey after everything else has been told about it. In other words, the 
interest has been destroyed by the child's failure to tell one of the most important 
details at the proper time. 

By means of this supposed case the teacher prepares the way for the repro- 
duction of the story next day, when, almost invariably, the child will endeavor 
to make his version "interesting." 

Though it is not wise to speak to the pupil of his spoken English in the story- 
telling period, an important part of the first-grade teacher's work is to teach the 
use of correct forms. How, then, is it to be done? By supplying single sen- 

305 




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WRITTEN WORK— FIRST AND SECOND GRADES 
306 




tence exercises in which this correction may be made, the teacher may hope to see 
the habits of correct speech formed. The child's natural use of words in story- 
telling, therefore, instead of furnishing a target for criticism, should be looked 
upon rather as an index of the progress he has made in acquiring correct habits 
through other means. 

Exercises which are to train the child in the use of correct English should, 
as said before, be of single sentence length only. Having given his sentence, 
he is ready to dwell upon it if attention is called to any error he may have made. 

The best kind of exercise is in the form of a game. For instance, in teach- 
ing the correct use of the parts of the verb see, the teacher may devise such a 
game as the following : Placing an apple on the table, she says, 'T see an apple," 
but quickly removing it, puts the question, "What did you see, Bernice?" If 
Bernice replies, "I seen an apple," the teacher explains that "seen" is one of 
those words that are afraid to be out alone, and so needs a helper along. Bernice 
then corrects her statement to "I have seen an apple," and the teacher asks her 
to say it in still another way. This brings out, "I saw an apple." Such an exer- 
cise may continue around a class with different objects shown. 

Another game may be played by having a pupil seat himself in a chair and 
then leave it. The class turns toward him and asks of the next child, "Was it 
he?" to which the reply is made, "It was he." Two pupils may then take chairs 
and the class asks, "Was it they ?" receiving the reply, "It was they." One pupil 
may now get up and ask, "Was it I ?'' "No," replies the class , "it was he," or 
"it was they," as the case may be. 

The ingenuity of the teacher readily supplies similar games for the correc- 
tion of various errors in speech. Bringing the play language into the school- 
room by means of natural conversation in game form will furnish he,r with 
abundant material upon which to base the exercises. 

As has been said, the first three grades present a problem calling for the 
keenest sympathy and skill in handling, but one may safely expect the child to 
have outgrown much of his sensitiveness by the end of the third year. Gradu- 
ally, then, throughout the third grade, the teacher may, at her discretion, widen 
her field for direct criticism of spoken English. It may not be wise to interrupt 
continued oral discourse for the sake of correction, but this must necessarily, even 
in more advanced grades, be a problem for each individual teacher to solve in 
each particular case. 

In written work, the correction of errors in spelling, capitalization, and form 
will occupy much of the time. The result will be that a finished piece of work, 
such as My Spring Vacation, or Frost, will represent the labor of ten days or 
more. As more time each day is spent on oral work than written, this estimate 
is probably lower than it should be. 

Both of these compositions were produced by using the question plan, though 
in the one entitled Frost the questions were more numerous and were kept as 
an outHne, while the one whose subject is My Spring Vacation is a simple piece 
of work, in answer to the two main questions only, "When was spring vacation?" 
and "How did you spend it?" In writing stories or personal experiences, the 
questions are so much more obvious that their preservation is unnecessary. 

The important feature of this plan is that the child formulates his own ques- 
tions. These must be such as he would find it necessary to ask in order to secure 
desired information in case he were entirely ignorant of the subject. The teacher's 
help will, of course, be needed in training the child to select questions properly. 
These questions once arranged, the grouping of his "sentence answers" into para- 
graphs will follow easily. 

307 








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WRITTISN WORK— THIRD GRADE. 
308 



Fourth-grade work differs little from third except that the question outline on 
Frost would be changed to statement form, somewhat as follows : 
I. What frost is. IV. Time of coming. 

II. How it is formed. V. Of what use it is. 

III. What it looks like. VI. What it does. 

The theme proper also would differ little from the third-grade production, 
except, perhaps, in the amount of material used in the answers. 

Fifth-grade theme work by the question plan might be illustrated by the 
following partial outline on Corn: 

Question Outline. II- Description of the corn plant. 

I. What is corn^ I- How tall is the corn plant? 

II." How does the corn plant look? ^- ^^f^^^"^^ °^ '*^^^ ^^' ^^^ '^°''" 

Statement Outline. o^ ^ 5 c^ x ^/-w ^f. 

T Axru ^ ISecond Statement Outline. 

1. What corn is. t ttm . 

. 1 ^ ^ I- What corn is. 

11. Description of the corn plant, etc. tt t^„^„^; -• r .■, , , 

_ , ^ . .rx ,. II- Description of the corn plant. 

Second Question Outline. 1. Height. 

I, What corn is. 2. Kind of stalk. 

Sixth-grade work might differ in the dignity of the words used in the state- 
ment outline, such as /. Definition, instead of /. What corn is. 

Seventh and eighth grades should continue theme writing according to out- 
lines thus made and expanded, each further subdivision requiring an additional 
outline, just as the first sub-questions necessitated the creation of the Second 
Question Outline. 

Since, beginning with the fourth grade, a language book is used and a gram- 
mar is introduced in the seventh grade, it will be unnecessary to go into further 
details in regard to language study pursued than is given in the outline following. 
The outlines for the study of grammar are based on the principle that the 
larger divisions of the sentence should be studied first, an analysis of the parts 
of speech following. 

First Grade. 

I. Spoken English. 

A. Spontaneous expression of experiences. 

1. Places seen or visited. 

2. Objects seen. 

3. Things that have happened. 

B. Free expression on subjects suggested by month 

1. September. 

a. Autumn. ' • 

b. Fall flowers. 

c. Farmer's occupation. 

d. Position of sun about September 20. 

2. October. 

a. Birds flying south. 

b. Color of leaves. 

c. First frosts. 

d. Preparation of food by squirrels. 

e. Position of sun in sky, evening and morning. 

3. November. 

a. Early darkness. 

b. Position of sun in sky. 

c. Preparation of man for winter. 

d. Indian summer. 

e. Thanksgiving. 

309 







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WRITTEN WORK— FOURTH GRADE;. 
310 



4. December. 

a. Winter. 

b. Position of moon in early evening sky. 

c. Stars bright and clear. 

d. Trees leafless. 

e. Christmas. 

5. January. 

a. New Year. 

b. Winter. 

c. What farmers bring to town. 

d. What merchants sell. 

e. Sun's position in morning and evening. 

6. February. 

a. Lengthening of days. 

b-. Winter fuel. 

c. Sun's position in sky. 

7. March. 

a. Spring. 

b. Rains. 

c. Sun's position about March 20. 

8. April. 

a. Spring. 

b. Planting of grains and flowers. 

c. Return of birds. 

d. Man's preparation for spring. 

e. Sun's position. 

f. Flowers. 

9. May. 

a. Trees. d. Crops growing. 

b. Leaves. e. What the farmers buy in town. 

c. Flowers. f. The position of the sun. 

C. Reproduction of stories heard and read. 

D. Dramatization of stories. 

E. Plays and games calling for expression. 

1. Single sentence games. 

2. Correction of vocabulary used in play. 

F. Memorizing of poems. 

G. Inculcation of principle of interest in telling of stories. 
IL Written English. 

A. Observance of rules for form. 

1. Left-hand margin. 

3. Title of story without period. 

3. Long paragraph form — Indentation of first line. 

4. Each sentence a paragraph. 

B. Capitalization. 

1. Beginning of sentences. 

2. Names of people. 3. Titles : Mr,, Mrs., etc. 

C. Punctuation. 

1. Period. 

2. Question mark. 

3. Comma to indicate pause. 

D. Material. 

1. Pictures shown. 

2. Flowers brought in. 

3. Subjects discussed orally. 

E. Form of written work. 

1. Single sentences. 

311 



Second Grade. 

I. Spoken English. 

A. Free expression of experiences. 

1. Material as in first grade. 

B. Free expression on subjects suggested by months, seasons, holidays, etc. 

(Information to be sought for by pupil at home or anywhere obtain- 
able). 

1. Introduction of discussions about leaves. 

2. Introduction of discussions about seeds. 

3. Flowers studied as to — 

a. Structure (No technical names used). 

b. Color. 

c. Perfume. 

d. Habit. 

e. Shapes. 

C. Instruction in grammatical accuracy. 

1. Exercises requiring complete sentence containing correct grammatical 
forms. 

a. See, saw, seen. 

b. Do, did, done. 

c. Go, went, gone. 

d. Hear, heard. 

D. Enlargement of vocabulary. 

E. Reproduction of stories heard and read. 

F. Dramatization. 

II. Written English. 

A. Introduction of question plan. 

1. Subject presented by teacher — e. g., Rice. 

2. Questions asked by pupils as if entirely ignorant of subject. 

3. Arrangement of the three or four principal questions (Never more 

than four in this grade) on board by teacher, with pupils' help in 
deciding logical order. 

4. Written answers to questions — One sentence of reply to each ques- 

tion. 

B. Capitalization. 

1. Months. 3. Cities. 

2. Days of week. 4. Streets. 

C. Punctuation. 

1. Exclamation point. 

D. Material for written expression. 

1. Experiences, 

2. Books of stories, myths, poems, accounts of heroes, etc. 

3. Pictures. 

a. Knowledge of artist gained from teacher's talk. 

b. Description of picture. 

4. Things observed. 

a. Flowers. 

b. Fruits. 

c. Metals. 

d. Grains. 

5. Holidays — New Year, Christmas, etc. 

Third Grade. 

I. Spoken English. 

A. Free expression about experiences. 

B. Reproduction of stories heard and read. 

C. Dramatization of stories and lessons. 

312 



II. Written English. 

A. Question plan with following additions: 

1. More help from pupils in deciding on logical order of questions. 

2. Use of two or three sentences in reply to one question. 

3. Long paragraph form extended — All answers to one question in one 

paragraph. 

4. Title page and cover. 

B. Capitalization. 

1. In writing letters. 

a. Heading. 

b. Salutation. 

3. Beginning of line of poetry. 

C. Punctuation. 

1. Apostrophe in contractions. 

D. Abbreviations. 

1. Measures used in arithmetic. 

2. Dr., Cr., Hon., Esq., Mr., etc. 

3. la., Ont., Que., Pa., 111., etc. 

E. Material for written expression. 

1. Experiences. 

2. Letters. 

3. Books containing — 

a. Fables, fairy stories, legends. 

b. Stories of child life in other lands. 

c. Stories of famous men and women. 

d. Stories of adventure. 

4. Pictures. 

a. Knowledge of artist. 

(a) Introduction of library research. to limited extent. 

b. Description. 

c. Meaning. 

5. Nature study. 

a. Mounted specimens of flowers studied. 

b. Mounted specimens of leaves studied. 

c. Birds. 

d. Grains. 

6. Physiology subjects. 

Fourth Grade. 

I. Spoken English. 

A. Free expression of experiences. 

B. Reproduction of stories heard and read. 

C. Dramatization of stories and lessons. 

D. Conversational exercises. 

1. Between impersonated storekeeper and customer, contractor and la- 
borers, gardener and men wishing to buy plants, etc. 

E. Correction of English used according to discretion of teacher. 

II. Written English. 

A. Question plan continued (with following addition) : 

"i. Change of question outline to statement outline before writmg of 
answers. 

B. Capitalization. 

1. In addressing letters. 

C. Punctuation. 

1. Comma in a series of words. 

D. Various abbreviations. 

313 



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WRITTEN WORK-FIFTH GRADE). 
314 



^. Sources of thought for written expression. 

1. Experiences. [ 

2. Pictures. 

3. Letters. 

4. Books containing — 

a. Fables, fairy stories, and legends. 

b. Stories of child life in other lands. 

c. Stories of famous men and women. 

d. Stories of adventure. 

e. Stories of history. 

5. Nature study. 

6. Physiology. 
F. Letter writing. 

1. Review of heading. 5. Ending. 

2. Dates. 6. Signature. 

3. Salutation. 7. Folding. 

4. Body of letter. 8. Addressing. 
IIL Introduction of Language Text-Book. 

Fifth Grade. 

I. Spoken English. 

A. Free expression of experiences. 

B. Reproduction of stories. 

C. Dramatization of stories and lessons. 

D. Correction of English by teacher according to discretion. 
n. Written English. 

A. Question plan extended. 

1. First question outline. 

2. First statement outline — Question outline changed to statements. 

3. First sub-question outline — Questions asked under various statements 

in statement outline. 

4. First sub-statement outline — Sub-questions changed to sub-statements. 

B. Sources of thought for expression. 

1. Experiences. 3. Nature study. 

2. Books of stories and history. 4. Physiology. 

C. Letter writing. 

IIL Use of Language Text-Book. 

Sixth Grade. 

I. Spoken English. 

A. Recitation. C. Discussions. 

B. Reports. D. Correction of spoken English at teacher's discretion. 

II. Written English. 

A. Practice in making and expanding outlines through one sub-statement 

outline. 

B. Letters. 

C. Experiences told in story form. 

III. Text-Book in Language Completed. 

Seventh Grade. 

I. Spoken English. 

A. Recitation. C. Discussions. 

B. Reports. D. Correction of spoken English at teacher's discretion. 

II. Written English. 

A. Making and expanding outlines through one sub-statement outline. 

B. Letters. 

C. Experiences told in story form. 

III. Text-Book in Grammar Introduced. 

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WRITTEN WORK— SIXTH GRADE. 
316 



II. Grammar. 

I. Classes. The Sentence. 

A. According to use. 

1. Statements (Declarative) — Ex., War is a conflagration. 

2. Questions (Interrogative) — Ex., Are you an American? 

3. Commands (Imperative) — Ex., Be brave. 

4. Exclamations (Exclamatory)— Ex., How fast the time flies! 
- B, According to structure. 

1. Simple — Ex., Rome was built on seven hills. 

2. Complex — Ex., The plans which you present are very good. 

3. Compound — Ex., The fireman raised his ladder and the woman es- 

caped. 

II. Parts. 

A. Subject. 

1. Word. 

a. Noun — Ex., The house was large. 

b. Pronoun — Ex., He spoke well. 

c. Gerund — Ex., Seeing is beheving. 

2. Phrase. 

a. Prepositional — Ex., Over the fence is out. 

b. Infinitive — Ex., To love is human. 

3. Clause, 

a. Noun clause. 

w. Simple — Ex., That the man escaped is true. 

X. Direct quotation — Ex., "Never say die," is our motto. 

y. Indirect statement — Ex., That a man does not live by bread 

alone is well said. 
z. Indirect question — Ex., Why he went will never be known. 

B. Modifiers of subject. 

1. Word. 

a. Adjective — Ex., The beautiful tree was cut down. 

b. Noun in possessive — Ex., The consul's reception was a brilliant 

affair. 

2. Phrase. 

a. Prepositional — Ex., A box of oranges has arrived. 

b. Infinitive — Ex., The way to win is to work. 

c. Participial — Ex., Having broken his machine, the man stopped. ^ 

3. Clause. 

a. Relative. 

X. Restrictive — Ex., A filter that is out of order is of no value. 
y. Descriptive — Ex., The hermit, who preferred his own hut, 

left our fireside. 
z. Progressive — Ex., A man was found who understood the 

business. 

b. Equivalent of relative clause introduced by a conjunctive adverb 

— Ex., The place where the tree stood is honored. 

C. Predicate. 

1. Verb. 

a. Word — Ex., The king entered. 

b. Phrase — Ex., The day was set. 

2. Modifiers of verb. 

a. Adverb. 

z. Ideas expressed. 
1. Time. 

a. Word — Ex., Come now. 

b. Phrase — Ex., In the morning they came. 

c. Clause — Ex., We started before day dawned. 

317 










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WRITTIIN WORK-SEJVENTH GRADE!. 
318 



2. Place. 

a. Word — Ex., Stand here. 

b. Phrase — Ex., Peanuts grow under the ground. 

c. Clause — Ex., I shall go where the climate is milder. 

3. Cause. 

a. Word — Ex., Why did you come? 

b. Phrase — Ex., It wore out because of rust. 

c. Clause — Ex., We returned because a storm arose. 

4. Reason. 

a. Clause — Ex., It has rained, because the walks are wet. 

5. Manner. 

a. Word — Ex., It runs smoothly, 

b. Phrase — Ex., The clerks came with alacrity. 

c. Clause — Ex., We do not plow as our ancestors did. 

6. Degree. 

a. Word — Ex., He reads much. 

b. Clause — Ex., We go as often as we can. 

7. Purpose. 

a. Phrase — Ex., He hurried for help. 

b. Clause — Ex., He saves that he might go to college. 

8. Resuh. 

a. Clause — Ex., The sky was so cloudy that we could not 
see the comet. 

9. Condition. 

a. Phrase — Ex., In that case, we shall go. 

b. Clause — Ex., If you will go, I will. 

10. Concession. 

a. Clause — Ex., Though I was tired, I went. 

11. Assertion. 

a. Word — Ex., Perhaps we shall go. 

b. Phrase — Ex., In all probability, it is true. 

12. Complementary. 

a. Phrase (Infinitive), They began to be interested. 

b. Noun (Adverbial objective). 

X. Idea expressed. 

1. Place to which — Ex., He walked home. 

2. Extent. 

a. Of time — Ex., It lasted three hours. 

b. Of space — Ex., We walked ten miles. 

c. Of measure — Ex., It weighed a pound. 
3. Complements. 

a. Object complement. 

X. Word. 

1. Noun or pronoun — Ex., We picked the berries, 
y. Phrase — Ex., The inventor expected to make his fortune. 
z. Clause — Ex., The editor claimed that the story was true. 

b. Attribute complement (subjective complement). 

X. Word. 

1. Noun, pronoun, or adjective — Ex., You will be sec- 
retary. 
y. Phrase — Ex., To see is to believe. 
z. Clause — Ex., Our conviction is that the jury will disagree. 

c. Objective complement (Predicate objective or objective attribute). 

X. Word. 

1. Noun, pronoun, or adjective — Ex., The flood made the 
river impassable. 
y. Phrase — Ex., He danced himself out of breath. 

319 

21 



D. Modifiers of modifiers. 

1. Adjective. 

a. Of noun — Ex., Interesting book. 
, b. Of pronoun — JLx., Eager for the work, he entered the room. 
c. Of word or expression used as noun — -Ex., Incessant murmuring. 

2. Adverbial. 

a. Of adjectives — Ex., Very strong. 

b. Of verbs — Ex., He swam rapidly. 

c. Of adverbs — Ex., Somewhat slowly. 

E. Independent expressions. 

3. Vocatives (Nominative independent) — Ex., Hold my horse, boy. 

2. Expletive — Ex., There is a flaw in the work. 

3. Parenthetical expressions. 

a. Phrase. 

x. Prepositional — Ex., Between you and me, I don't believe it. 

y. InfiniLe — Ex., To be frank, I don't like it. 

z. Participial — Ex., Putting it briefly, he had no friends. 

b. Clause — Ex., The winter will be a hard one (At least, we think 

so). 

4. Nominative Absolute — Ex., The parents having died, the children 

were left without support. 

5. Exclamations. 

a. Interjections — Ex., Hurrah! 

b. Other words or phrases — Ex., Plappiness beyond compare! 



Parts of Speech. 

I. Nouns. 

A. Classes. 

1. Proper — Ex., Richmond. 

2. Common. 

a. Abstract — Ex., Virtue. 

b. Concrete — Ex., Plouse. 

3. Collective — Ex., Infantry. 

4. Verbal (Gerund) — Ex., Walking. 

B. Modifications. 

1. Gender. 

a. Masculine ; b. Feminine ; c. Neuter. 

2. Number. 

a. Singular; b. Plural. 

3. Case. 

a. Nominative. 

b. Possessive (Genitive). 

c. Objective. 

C. Uses. 

1. Nominative. 

a. Subject — Ex., The army was large. 

b. Attribute complement (Subjective complement) — Ex., This is a 

city. 

c. Apposition of a nominative noun — Ex., Mr. Green, the book- 

keeper, is ill. 

d. Independent. 

X. Vocative — Ex., What is the matter, Henry? 

y. Nominative absolute — Ex., The bell ringing, we started. 

z. Exclamation — Ex., Pleavens! 

2. Possessive. 

a. Modifier of noun — Ex., The boy's book is here. 

320 



3. Objective. 

a. Object of verb — Ex., I saw the animals. 

b. Objective complement (Predicate objective, objective attribute) 

— Ex., The club made Tom their 
president. 

c. Object of preposition — Ex., It is on the table. 

d. Indirect object — Ex., Tell me the story. 

e. Appositive of noun in objective case — Ex., Mr. Brown sold Dan, 

his old horse. 

f. Subject of infinitive (Objective subject) — Ex., We believe the 

boy to be frank. 

g. Attribute complement of an infinitive when subject is objective — 

Ex., We believe him to be an honest boy. 
h. Adverbial objective — Ex., The darkness lasted five hours. 

II. Pronouns. 

A. Classes. 

1. Personal. 

a. Simple. 
b. Compound, 
y. Intensive. 
z. Reflective. 

2. Demonstrative. 

3. Interrogative. 

4. Relative. 

a. Simple. 

b. Compound. 

5. Indefinite. 

a. Distributives. 

b. Comparatives. 

c. Pronouns of number or quantity. 

d. Compound indefinites. 

B. Modifications. 4. Person. 

1. Gender. a. First. 

2. Number. b. Second. 

3. Case. c. Third. 

C. Uses. 

1. Nominative. 

a. Subject — Ex., I believe the story. 

b. Attribute complement — Ex., It is I. 

2. Possessive. 

a. Modifier of noun — Ex., His farm is large. 

3. Objective. 

a. Object of verb — Ex., The court acquitted him. 

b. Object of preposition — Ex., I walked v/ith her. 

c. Indirect object — Ex., Tell them the story. 

' d. Subject of infinitive — Ex., Do you know him to be the culprit? 

e. Attribute complement — Ex., I know it to have been him. 

III. Adjectives. 

A. Classes. x. Demonstrative. 

1. Descriptive. y. Interrogative, 

2. Limiting. z. Indefinite. 

a. Numerals. B. Modifications. 

y. Cardinal. 1. Comparison. 

z. Ordinal, a. Degrees. 

b. Articles. x. Positive. 

c. Pronominal. y. Comparative. 

z. Superlative. 

321 



C. Uses. 

1. Attributive — Ex., A glorious sunset followed. 
3. Predicate. 

a. Attribute complement — Ex., The roads are hard. 

b. Objective complement — Ex., The workmen made the bridge safe. 
3. Substantive — Ex., Do not listen to the counsel of the wicked. 

IV. Verb. 

A. Classes. 

1. According to form. 

a. Transitive. 

b. Intransitive. 

2. According to structure. 

a. Strong. 

b. Weak. 

y. Regular. 
z. Irregular. 

c. Mixed. 

B. Principal parts. 

1. Present. 

2. Past (Preterite). 

3. Past participle. 

C. Modifications. 

1. Voice. 

a. Active ; b. Passive. 

2. Mood. 

a. Indicative. 

X. Tenses. 

1. Names. 

a. Present. d. Future. 

b. Past (Preterite). e. Present perfect. 

c. Future. f. Future perfect. 

2. Kinds. 

a. Simple — Ex., You see. 

b. Progressive — Ex., You are seeing. 

c. Emphatic — Ex., You do see. 

d. Interrogative — Ex., Do you see? 

e. Negative — Ex., You do not see. 

3. Form. 

a. Word — Ex., Hear. 

b. Phrase — Ex., Will hear. 
y. Person. 

1. First; 2. Second; 3. Third, 
z. Number. 

1. Singular. 

2. Plural. 

b. Subjunctive. 

w. Tense. 

1. Of those subjunctive inflected regularly. 

a. Present. 

b. Past. 

c. Present perfect. 

d. Past perfect. 

2. Of those formed by use of special auxiliaries. Irregu- 

lar and indefinite. 



3. Time signification of tenses. 

a. Varying according to ideas expressed. 
X. Person. ) 

y.' Number, f ^^ ^" indicative. 
z. Ideas expressed. 

1. Independent forms. 

a. Wish — Ex., Would I were there. 

b. Potential — Ex., I might go. 

c. Conclusion of conditional — Ex., I would if I could. 

d. Exhortation — Ex., Let him be punished. 

2. Dependent forms. 

a. Purpose — Ex., I went that I might see him. 

b. Condition — Ex., If I were there, etc. 

c. Imperative. 

X. Tense. 

1. Present, 
y. Person. 

1. Second. 
z. Number. 

1. Singular. 

2. Plural. 

d. Infinitive. 

y. Tense. 

1. Present. 

2. Past. 
z. Forms. 

1. Simple root infinitive — Ex., To move. 

2. Progressive — To be moving. 

3. Gerund — Ex., Moving (As ,a noun). 

Otherwise classed below. 
3. Verbal forms. 

a. Participle. 

y. Tense. 

1. Present, 

2. Present perfect, 

3. Past. 
z. Forms. 

1. Mood — In ing — Ex., Waving. 

2. Phrasal — Ex., Having waved. 

b. Gerunds — Ex., Swimming is a healthful exercise, 
D. Uses. 

1. Notional verbs. 
a. Finite form. 
y. Transitive. 

1. Active. 

a. With object — Ex., They captured a bear. 

b. With objective complement — Ex., They made John 

captain. 

2. Passive. 

a. Without attribute — Ex., The wolf was killed. 

b. With attribute — Ex., The crown prince was made 

king. 
z. Intransitive. 

1. Complete in itself — Ex., The horses ran. 

2. Copula with attribute complement. 

a. Form <of "to be" — Ex., The river was a torrent. 

b. Other copulative verbs — Ex., The task seemed hard. 

323 



b. Infinitive. 

w. Noun. 

1. Subject of verb — Ex., To listen well is an art. 

2. Attribute complement — Ex., To see is to believe. 

3. Object complement — Ex., I wished to stay, 

4. Objective complement — Ex., He made himself seem 

ridiculous. 

5. Object of a few prepositions — Ex., None knew her but 

to love her. 

6. Appositive — Ex., His plan to steal the 'gold and hide it 

failed. 
X. Adjective — Ex., The way to win is to work, 
y. Adverb. 

1, Modifying a verb. 

a. Expressing purpose — Ex., They work to win, 

b. Complementary— Ex., You ought to succeed. 

2, Modifying an adjective — Ex., We were eager to be off. 

3, Modifying an adverb — Ex., Do not be too headstrong 

to see your faults. 
z. Independent — Ex., To speak plainly, I blame you for your 
neglect. 

c. Verbal forms. 

y. Participles. 

1, Adjective. 
z. Gerunds. 
1, Noun. 
2. Auxiliary, 
V. Adverb. 

A. Classes. 

1. According to use. 

a. Limiting — Ex., He talks quietly. 

b. Interrogative — Ex., When wilf you come ? 

c. Conjunctive— Ex., They went to Rome, where they remained. 

2. According to form. 

a. Simple — Ex., Soon. 

b. Flexional — Ex., Noisily. 

c. Phrasal — Ex., At once. 

3. According to meaning. 

a. Time — Ex., Obey now. 

b. Place — Ex., Put it here, 

c. Manner — Ex., He sings well. 

d. Degree— Ex., The horse runs very fast. 

e. Cause — Ex., Why did vou come? 

f. Assertion and denial— Ex., Yes, no. 

B. Modifications. 

1. Comparison. 
a. Degree. 

X. Positive. 

y. Comparative. 

z. Superlative. 

C. Use. 

1. Modifier of verb— Ex., She walked softly, 

2. Modifier of adjective— Ex., It is a very pretty hat 

3. Modifier of adverb— Ex., The child danced very gracefully, 

324- 



VI. Prepositions. 

A. Classes. 

1. Simple — Ex,, To. 2. Compound — Ex., According to. 

B. Use. 

1. In "prepositional phrase" — Ex., On the floor. 

2. As part of verb phrases — Ex., Approve of. 

VII. Conjunction. 
A. Classes. 

1. According to use. 

a. Co-ordinating. 

y. Word — Ex., And. 

z. Double (Correlatives) — Ex., Both, and. 

b. Subordinating. 

y. Adverbial — Ex.. If you will go, I will. 

z. Introductory (Followed by noun clause) — Ex., He knows 

2. According to form. that you came. 

a. Simple — Ex., When. b. Phrasal — Ex., As if. 

VIII. Interjections. 
A. Classes. 

1. Simple — Ex., Oh: 3. Phrasal — Ex., Mercy on me! 

3. Secondary — Ex., Farewell. 



Wynken, Blynken, and Nod. 

Wynken, Blynken, and Nod one night 

Sailed off in a wooden shoe^ — 
Sailed on a river of misty light 

Into a sea of dew. 
"Where are you going, and what do you wish?" 

The old moon asked the three. 
"We have come to fish for the herring-fish 

That live in this beautiful sea ; 
Nets of gold and silver have we," 

Said Wynken, Blynken, and Nod. 

The old man laughed and sang a song, 

As they rocked in the wooden shoe ; 
And the wind that sped them all night long 

Ruffled the waves of dew; 
The little stars were the herring-fish 

That lived in the beautiful sea. 
"Now cast your net wherever you wish, 

But never afraid are we !" 
So cried the stars to the fishermen three, 

Wynken, Blynken, and Nod. 

All night long their nets they threw 

For the fish in the twinkling foam. 
Then down from the sky came the wooden shoe 

Bringing the fishermen home ; 
'Twas all so pretty a sail, it seemed 

As if it could not be ; 
And some folks thought 'twas a dream they'd dreamed 

Of sailing that beautiful sea; 
But I shall name you the fishermen three: 

Wynken, Blynken, and Nod. 

Wynken and Blynken are two little eyes. 

And Nod is a little head. 
And the wooden shoe that sailed the skies 

It is a wee one's trundle-bed; 
So shut your eyes while mother sings 

Of wonderful sights that be. 
And you shall see the beautiful things 

As you rock on the misty sea 
Where the old shoe rocked the fishermen three, 

Wynken, Blynken, and Nod. — Field. 

325 



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